Grammar of the Burmese Language

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[ 4 ]

This is the same as Appendix B in the new edition of Dr. Judson’s Burmese and English Dictionary. It consists of that Grammar of the Burmese language, which was published in the quarto edition, with the addition of critical notes. Everything added in this way is carefully indicated by the letters st., which form an abbreviation for the name of the present editor,

Prome, June 5th, 1883.

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§1. The Burmese language is written from left to right, and without any division of words.

§2. The pure Burmese is monosyllabic, every word consisting of one syllable only; but the introduction of the Pali language, with the Boodhistic religion, has occasioned the incorporation of many polysyllabic words of Pali origin into the pure Burmese.

§3. The form of the letters, the order of the vowels and consonants and the classification of the latter, prove that the Burmese alphabet is but one modification of the ancient Nagari; as the Pali language itself as used by the Burmese, is but a modification of the Sanscrit.

§4. The Burmese alphabet consists of ten vowels (သရ), and thirty-two consonants (ဈည်း).

§5. The ten vowels are:—အ, a, အာ, a, ဣ, ee, ဤ, ee, ဥ, ဥိ, oo, ဦ, oo, ဧ, aa, [or ey in they, st.] အဲ, ai, ဩ, ဩော, au, ဪ, an,—to which may be added the diphthong, အို, o.

§6. The thirty-two Consonants are:—

က ka	ခ ‘ka	ဂ ga	ဃ ga	င nga
စ tsa	ဆ ‘tsa	ဇ dza	ဈ dza	ည nya
ဋ ta	ဌ ‘ta	ဍ da	ဎ da	ဏ na
တ ta	ထ ‘ta	ဒ da	ဓ da	န na
ပ pa	ဖ ‘pa	ဗ ba	ဘ ba	မ ma
ယ ya	ရ ra	လ la	ဝ wa	သ tha
ဟ ha	ဠ la;

—to which may be added the character (◌ံ) an.
[ 6 ]§7. According to the foregoing arrangement, the first twenty-five consonants are distributed into five classes. The letters of the first or က class are gutturals (ကဏ္ကဇာ^[1]); those of the second or စ class are palatals (‌တာလုဇာ); those of the third or ဋ class are cerebrals (မုန္ဓ‌ဇာ); those of the fourth or တ class are dentals (ဒန္တ‌ဇာ); and those of the fifth or ပ class are labials (ဩဌဇာ).

§8. The first letter of each class is a simple articulation, smooth and soft; the third is the same, rough and hard; the second is the aspirate of the first; the fourth, according to the Nagari system, is the aspirate of the third, but according to the Burmese pronunciation, is the same; and the fifth is the corresponding nasal.

§9. The pronunciation of the cerebrals and the dentals, though different in the Nagari, is the same in the Burmese.

§10. Of the seven remaining consonants, five, viz; ယ, ရ, လ, ဝ, and ဠ are liquids; သ is properly a sibilant, but pronounced th, and ဟ is an aspirate.

§11. The cerebrals and the letter ဠ are found in words only of Pali origin.

§12. The names and powers of the vowels are as follows:—

အ	a or ah	as a in America.
အာ	a or ah	as a in father.
ဣ	ee	as i in pin, [or ee in been. st.]
ဤ	ee	as ee in feet.
ဥ ဥိ	oo	as oo in good, or u in full.
ဦ	oo	as oo in food, or u in rule.
ဧ	aa or ay	as a in fate.

[ 7 ]

အဲ	ai	as ai in hair.
ဩ ဩော	au	as o in on.
ဪ	au	as au[2] in audience.
အုိ	o	as o in note.

§13. The names and powers of the consonants are as follows:—

□□	great ka,	k, as in king.
□□	curved ‘ka,	‘k, k aspirated, [pron. as if written □□. st.]
□□	small ga,	g, as in good.
□□	great ga,	the same.
□□	nga,	ng, as in rang, when final; when initial, not to be exemplified in English.
□□	round tsa,	ts.
□□	twisted ‘tsa,	‘ts, ts aspirated.
□□	divided dza,	dz.
□□ or □□, □□	bridle dza,	the same, [pron. as if written □□. st.]
□□ or □□	nya, [ngya, st.]	ny, [ngy, st.]
□□	bier-hook ta,	t, as in time.
□□	duck ‘ta,	‘t, t aspirated.
□□	crooked-breast da,	d, as in done.
□□	water-dipper da,	the same.
□□	great na,	n, as in not.
□□	abdominous ta,	t, as in time.
□□	elephant-fetter ‘ta,	‘t, t aspirated
□□	confused da,	d, as in done.
□□ (formerly written □,)	bottom-indented da,	the same.
□□	small na,	n, as in not.

[ 8 ]

□□	steep or deep pa,	p, as in part.
□□	capped ‘pa,	‘p, p aspirated.
□□	top-indented ba,	b, as in book.
□□	hump-backed ba,	the same.
□□	ma,	m, as in make.
□□	supine ya,	y, as in young.
□□	crooked ra,	r, as in run, or y, as above.
□□	la,	l, as in love.
□□	wa,	w, as in word.
□□	tha,	th, soft, as in thin, or th, hard, as in this.
□□	ha,	h, as in home.
□□	great la,	l, as in love.

§14. The character (□) called □□□□, small thing placed above, is placed over the letter with which it is combined, and has the power of a final □, or a final □, divested of its inherent heavy accent (see Accents); thus □, an, □, than.

§15. Compound Consonants are formed by combining one or more of the letters □, □, □, and □, under symbolic forms with simple consonants, according to the following table, in which □ is selected as the principal, because that is the only letter which admits all the adjuncts:—

§16.

Letter.	Symbol.	Name of Symbol.	Junction with □ Power.
□	□	□□□, ya combined,	□	mya.
□	□	□□□, ra curved round,	□	mra or mya.
□	□	□□, wa suspended,	□	mwa.
□	□	□□□, and □□,	□	mywa.
□	□	□□□, and □□,	□	mrwa.
□	□	□□□, ha thrust out,	□	‘ma.
□	□	□□□, and □□□,	□	‘mya.
□	□	□□□, and □□□,	□	‘mra or ‘mya.
□	□	□□□, and □□□,	□	‘mwa.
□	□	□□□, □□ and □□□,	□	‘mrwa or ‘mywa.

[ 9 ]

§17. The letter □, in the capacity of an aspirate, may be combined with the nasals, as □, □, □, □, □, and with the liquids □ and □, as □, □. But when combined with □ or □, the compound has the power of sh, as □□, shan. □□, ‘lya also is frequently pronounced sha, and □□ has the same power. □ is equivalent to □, nya, And □□ to □, ya.

§18. The vowel □ is supposed to be inherent in every consonant that is not furnished with the symbol of another vowel, or marked as final.

§19. The other vowels are combined with consonants, simple or compound, under symbolic forms, according to the following table:—

§20.

Letter.	Symbol.	Name of Symbol.	Junction with □ Power.
□	□ or □	□, placed down,	□	ka.
□	□	□□□, large round placed on,	□	kee.
□	□	□□, large round placed on and kernel inserted,	□	kee.
□	□	□□□, one line drawn,	□	koo.
□	□	□□□, two lines drawn,	□	koo.
□	□	□□□, tha-waa thrust out,	□	kaa.
□	□	□□□, thrown back,	□	kai.
□	□–□	□□□, as above,	□	kau.
□	□–□	□□□, as above and thrust forward,	□	kau.
□	□	□□□, as above,	□	ko.

§21. The second symbol of the vowel □□ (□) is used whenever the use of the first would convert the consonant into another letter,—also with □ and □, as □□, not □□. The latter part of the symbols of □ and □, is similarly modified in the same circumstances, as □□ not □□.

§22. The symbol of any vowel may be combined with the vowel □, in which case the compound has the power of the vowel which the symbol represents; thus □□ is equivalent to □, □ to □, &c. [ 10 ]

§23. When a consonant is deprived of its inherent vowel □, and not furnished with the symbol of another, it becomes final in the syllable. The absence of the inherent vowel □, is denoted by the mark (□) called that, [th as in thin, st.] signifying killed, placed above the consonant thus, □□, or by another consonant subjoined, thus □□; in which case the subjoined consonant becomes the initial of the next syllable, thus □□□, kat-ta.

§24. One consonant however is sometimes placed under another as a mere abbreviation, and does not therefore deprive the preceding consonant of its inherent vowel; thus □□□ is equivalent to □□□, and is to be read, not thma, but tha-ma.

§25. □ has two forms, □ (single), and □ (double). In elementary works, therefore, the double form may be well distinguished by subjoining a doable tail, thus □.

§26. □ with □ subjoined is sometimes written □, but frequently and more properly □. A double □ is written □□.

§27. Final consonants generally assume a new and peculiar power, and also modify the preceding vowel. These permutations, as they occur in words of pure Burmese origin, are exhibited in the following table:—

§28.

□	□	□	□	□
□□, et.			□□, ouk.	□□, aik.[3]
□□, en, een,[4]			□□, oung.	□□, aing.[5]
□□, eet,[6]
□□, een, ee.
□□, at.	□□, eing.[7]	□□, ōk.
□□, an.	□□, eik.	□□, ōng.
□□, at.	□□, eing.	□□, ōk.
□□, an.	□□, eik.	□□, ōng.
□□, ai.[8]
□□, an.		□□, ōng.

[ 11 ]§29. The final syllables, as here exhibited, are combined with any consonant simple or compound, as □□ ket, □□ kyeen, &c. without any change in their pronunciation, except in two cases, viz: □ before □ or □, is commonly pronounce wŏt^[9] not wat, and before □, □, or (□), wŏn or woon not wan; and consonants compounded with □, as □, □, &c. before □ or □, are commonly pronounced kooat,^[10] tsooat; and before □, □, or (□), kooan,^[11] tsooan^[12], &c. [These final consonants are not pronounced as distinctly as in English. st.]

§30. There are also many words of Pali origin, in which consonants, final in a syllable, are subject to permutations somewhat similar to the above, and others of a peculiar character. A key to the whole is furnished in the following table:—

§31.

□		□		□		□		□
□□		□□,	eik.	□□,	ōk.	□□,	eet, [or it. st.]	□□,	ouk.
□□		□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.			□□,	oung.
□□		□□,	eik.	□□,	ōk.	□□,	eet.	□□,	oot.
□□		□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.	□□,	een, ee.	□□,	oon.
□□		□□,	eik.	□□,	ōk.	□□,	eet.	□□,	oot.
□□		□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.	□□,	een.	□□,	oon.
□□		□□,	eik.	□□,	ōk.	□□,	eet.	□□,	oot.
□□		□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.	□□,	een. [ee as in been. st.]	□□,	oon.
□□
□□,	an.					□□,	ee.
□□,	an.	□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.	□□,	een.	□□,	oon.
□□,	at.	□□,	eik.	□□,	ōk.	□□,	eet.	□□,	oot.
□□,	an.	□□,	eing.	□□,	ōng.

§32. In the preceding table, final consonants are marked (□), for the sake of simplifying the tabular view; but though there are some instances of that kind, as □□□, oo-pōk, □□□, ma-‘tee, in almost all cases derived from the Pali, final consonants are made so by having other consonants subjoined, as □□□ eing-dray, or by modidcation (see §23), ein-dray, □□□, ōk-tsa, or by modification ōt-tsa, □□□, meet-ta,‡ □□□□□, oot-tap-pa. [ 12 ]

§33. As an appendix to both the preceding tables, note:—

1st. Cerebrals, when final, are the same as dentals; thus □□□□ is pronounced at-ta-ma, as if written □□□□.

2d. The third letter of each class is the same as the first; thus □□□□, prononnced pyat-that, as if written □□□□.

3d. The second and fourth letters of each class never occur as finals, except in some words derived from the Pali,—when they are mute; as □□□, from □□□, the sky, pronounced mo.

4th. □□, □□, □□ and □□, after □□, are mute, e. g. □□□, ko, □□□□□, Myeen-mo, □□□, bo, □□□, ‘to, □□□, gyo, □□□□□, Thee-ho.

5th. □□ before a final gives the syllable the same power as □, thus □□□ is pronounced, an, as if written □□□, e. g. □□□□□ man-nat.

§34. The sound of a final consonant is frequently modified by the initial consonant of the following syllable or word, as □□□□□, ek-ka-ra, [ek-kha-ra, st.] not et-ka-ra, □□□□, them-bau, not then-bau. But these permutations, being dictates of nature, will be naturally acquired without rule.

§35. There is another permutation of perpetual occurrence, which may be thus stated:—when two syllables are in juxtaposition, so as to form one word, the first syllable ending in a vowel (except □), [expressed, st.] or a nasal, and the initial letter of the second syllable being the first or second letter of either of the five classes of consonants, it frequently takes the sound of the third letter of the same class; that is, □ and □ are pronounced as □; □ and □, as □; □ and □ as □; □ and □, as □; □ and □, as □ ; thus □□□, a word, is pronounced, not tsa-kah, but tsa-gah, as if written □□□, and □□□□□, considerably, is pronounced, not en-tan, but en-dan, as if written □□□□□.

§36. But there are so many exceptions to this general rule, that regard to the coalescence of sounds as exhibited in common practice is recommended as the only true guide.

[ 13 ]

§37. There are two accents, the short, light accent (□), and the short, heavy accent (□).

§38. The short, light accent (□), called □□, the □ stop, (formerly a small subscriptive □,) or □□□□, the under stop, is placed under the letter, thus □□. It is used with the vowels □, □, □, □, and the nasal consonants.

§39. The short heavy accent (□), called □□□□□□, the two round woot-tsahs, or □□□□, the dots before (after), is placed after the latter, thus □□. It is used with the vowels □, □, □, □, □, and the nasal consonants. This accent is considered as inherent in the vowel □ (unless superseded by the light accent), and in the final consonant □, when combined with the vowel □. In the latter case it is frequently omitted as superfluous; and in the former case, almost uniformly, in modern usage.

§40

□□ for	. . . .	□□□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□ [13]
(□) for	. . . .	□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□
(when placed over □, in the symbol of □□□)			□□ for	. . . .	□□□
			□□ or □□ for	. . . .	□□□□□□□
□□ for	. . . .	□□□□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□
□□ for	. . . .	□□□□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□
□□ for	. . . .	□□□□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□
□□ for	. . . .	□□□	□□ for	. . . .	□□□□□□

§41. □ is sometimes represented by its symbol, after □□, as □□□□□ for □□□□□□, □□□□ for □□□□□, &c.

§42. □□ or □□ is frequently removed from its natural situation in the line, and placed over the following letter, as □□□□□ for □□□□□□. [In this position it is called □□□□□ st.] In the case of □□□, the accent is omitted, without affecting the pronunciation; as □□□□ for □□□□□□.

[ 14 ]

§43.

□,	□,	□,	□,	□,	□,	□,	□,	□,	□□.
1,	2,	3,	4,	5,	6,	7,	8,	9,	10.

§44. The mark □ called □□□ or □□□□□, a stop, is need to separate sentences, and the clauses of a sentence. The double mark □□, □□□□□□, a great stop, is used to divide paragraphs.

§45. The mark □□□□□□□, a little stop, begins to be used in printed books, as an equivalent to the English comma, (a great desideratum in Burmese writing) leaving the □ to supply the place of the semicolon and period.

§46. The Etymology of Burmese Grammar may be exhibited under the six classes of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, and Interjections.

§47. The usual division of nouns into common and proper obtains in the Burmese, as in all other languages.

§48. Under common nouns are included three kinds of derivatives; the simple, the reduplicative, and the compound.

§49. Simple derivatives are mostly formed from verbal roots, by prefixing □, as □□□□, light, from □□□ to be light; but in composition the □, is commonly dropped; thus □□□, food, from □□, to eat, when combined with □, evening, becomes □□□ evening food, or supper.

§50. The same is true of all nouns, whose initial is a syllable □; thus □□□□, liquor, when combined with □□, a bee, becomes □□□□□□, honey; and sometimes even when a syllable or word is added; thus □□□□, brightness, when followed by □□□□, a ray, becomes □□□□□□□□, a ray of brightness. [ 15 ]

§51. Reduplicative derivatives are formed from nouns of one syllable, by prefixing □ to the noun reduplicated, or from nouns of two syllables, the first being a syllabic □, by dropping the □ in the second number of the reduplication; and such derivations imply generality or universality; thus from □□□□ a country, is formed □□□□□□□□□□ (with the plural affix), many or all countries; and for □□□□□, a race, □□□□□□□□□□ many or all races.

§52. Compound derivatives will be considered under the head of verbal nouns.

§53. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and plural. The simple noun may be regarded as being in the singular number, as □□, a man; though the noun in its simple state, without any definite adjunct, has frequently a generic meaning, as □□□□□□□□□□, man is mortal.

§54. The plural is formed by affixing □□□ (pronounced □□□), do, to the singular, as □□, a man, □□□□□ men. The adjective □□□□ is sometimes used instead of □□□, and sometimes both are combined, as □□□□□□, or □□□□□□□□, men.

§55. The Burmese language recognizes no grammatical or artificial gender, but that only which consists in the distinction of the sexes, viz, the masculine and the feminine.

§56. The two genders are distinguished, sometimes by different words, as □□□□□□, a man, □□□□, a woman; sometimes by regarding the simple noun as masculine, and affixing □ for feminine, as □□□□, a priest (of Boodh), □□□□□, a priestess; and sometimes by affixing □□□, or □, or □□□, for the masculine, and □ for the feminine; as □□□□□□, a dog, □□□□, a bitch; □□□□□, a cock, □□□□□, a hen; □□□□□□, a gander, □□□□, a goose.

§57. The relations of nouns expressed in most languages by prepositions or inflections, are in the Burmese language expressed [ 16 ]by particles affixed to the noun without any inflection of the noun itself.

§58. The noun affixes may be distributed into nine classes, viz, the Nominative, the Objective, the Possessive, the Dative, the Causative, the Instrumentive, the Connective, the Locative, and the Ablative.

§59. □□ is the most common nominative affix, denoting the agent or subject of the verb ; as □□□□□□□□, that man is good; but in simple sentences, it is most commonly omitted; as □□□□□□, he is good; also in participial clauses, □□□□□□□□ the words which the teacher speaks,

§60. □□, □□□□, and □□□ (by abbreviation □), are also nominative affixes, denoting the agent or subject, but rather more definitive or distinctive than □□, and from the latter quality, are much used in adversative clauses, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□, my conduct is good; his conduct is not good. These affixes are frequently equivalent to as to, concerning, in regard to, a substantive verb being understood, as □□□□□□□□, as to the reason, (it is as follows).

§61. □□ is sometimes used emphatically after another noun affix, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□, can you indeed bear the beating? Also repeated after successive clauses intended to be set adversatively, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ □□□□□□□□□□□□, on the land it is easy to see; in the water (we) cannot see. In such cases □□ is used adverbially.

§62. □□ is the true objective affix, denoting the object on which an action terminates; as □□□□□□□□□, to drink water; sometimes, with some latitude of application, it denotes the object to which a thing is given; as □□□□□□□, give to me; or the object [ 17 ]to which motion is directed; as □□□□□□□□□□ go to the house! or the material out of which a thing is made; as □□□□□□□□□□□□□, an implement made of gold. In the first and most proper application, it is frequently understood; as □□□□□ for □□□□□□□, give water.

§63. □□ is an objective affix, denoting the object towards which or unto which motion is directed, as □□□□□□□□□□, go to the house! though frequently, in colloquial style, it is superceded by □□, as above. Various applications may seem to require the aid of various prepositions in Englishi as □□□□□□□□□ to deliver into (his) hand, □□□□□□□□□□, to follow (his) will, or according to (his) will, □□□□□□□□□□, to arrive at the town; but in all such cases, it will be evident, on a little reflection, that the legitimate import of the affix is preserved.

§64. □□ is the possessive affix denoting possession, as □□□□□□, the life of man. This affix is very frequently understood; in which case the preceding syllable, if capable of taking the short, light accent, is pronounced accordingly; thus □□□□□□□, a father's father, if written □□□□□□, is pronounced as if written, □□□□□□□.

§65. □□□ is the proper dative affix, equivalent in various applications to to or per in English, as □□□□□□□, give to me. It is sometimes used for the objective affix □□□.

□□□, for, in order to, is used only with □□□□, desire, as □□□□□□□, for food, or for the sake of food; or with verbals in □□□□, as □□□□□□□□, or □□□□□□□□□□□, in order to eating; or with verbs used substantively, as □□□□□□□□, or □□□□□□□□□, in order to eat. (See under verbal nouns, §124, and verbs used substantively, §122.) [ 18 ]

§66. □□□□, because, on account of, from □□□□□□ a cause or reason, is used with simple nouns, as □□□□□□□□, because of the fault; but its great use is in connection with verbs used substantively, as □□□□□□□□□□, because of the fault. (See verbs used substantively, §122.) □□ is equivalent to □□□□ but seldom used in writing.

§67. □□□□, by, with, by means of, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□, to hold with the hand, is the proper instrumentive affix; but it is more frequently superceded by the connective affix □□□□, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□, of the same import; or used in connection with the secondary noun □□□, in the sense of means, literally strength. (See secondary nouns, §74.)

§68, The connective affix □□□□ signifies 1st, with, together with, as □□□□□□□□□□□□, to follow with the man. In this sense it is much used with the secondary nouns □□□, □□□, &c. (See secondary nouns, §74.)

2d. It supplies the place of the copulative conjunction and between nouns, as □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ to seek gold and silver.

3d. It is frequently used for the instrumentive affix □□□□, as stated above.

§69. □□□□, □□, and □□□, are locative affixes, signifying in, at, among, as □□□□□□□□, □□□□□□, □□□□□□□, in the house. They sometimes have a possessive import, as □□□□□□□□□□□□, the goods with me (or my goods) are many.

□□□, like the nominative affixes □□, □□□□, &c., frequently signifies as to, concerning, in regard to.

□□□ signifies in, but is commonly restricted to nouns of place and time. [ 19 ]ABLATIVE.

§70. The ablative affix ^ 8igbifie8yr<?m, out of^ separate from, besides, as gcoo^oddco^i td cotne from the wood; 0^^000)8, besides that^ one {thirty more); <^^\^^^9 beginning from that day^ that is, from that day foi'th, CGS£^€)^cg|0^co^, all my property^ beginning with my house.

§71. OD is an ablative affix of the same import with ^, but has frequently the additional power of a nominative affix, particularly to verbs of speaking or communicating in any way, when the speech or matter communicated comes between the nominative and the verb; as o^cpsaDdSoDOocoSs^Scecx^S^cooS^dii God said, let there be light.

§72. Certain verbal affixes, as op, co5, co, ol, and col, when affixed to nouns, are merely expletive.

§73. The vocative is expressed by the noun in a simple state divested of all affixes. Sometimes in grave discourse, it is indicated by c^ prefixed, as (^90C[p, O teacher.

SECONDARY NOUNS.

§74. Some relations of nouns are expressed by means of secondary nouns which take some of the preceding affixes, and are connected with the principal nouns by dl^ (dropping the formative 00) this sign of thfe possessive, expressed or understood, as in the following examples: —

• '*^ I an «gp«. part; | ^f <«~««'TVo, or £Sc<Sr^,

000000, ) \ diooocoi^b, dbovej over^ or

iipon the house.

(§ooooS, an under part; (BScooocS^Of under the house. cfij a fore part; gS£cj^, before the house. Q^ocSj a hind part; (SSq^ocS^o, behind the house.

Op [ an outside; SSo^Ot gS£^8^o, without the house.

oogS 00 ob,

00

' > an inside; cS^cb^o, cBSogSs^o, wiihin the house.

[ 20 ]90^08, a side^ oSS^os^o, hy ihs house. 00^8, a near patt^ nearness } gS^^s^o, near thlB^ tiousiRi: a^cOf presence / qSsoo^o, in presence of the governor. iSf dittd; oSscS^D, ditto.

ooQO, an upper part; §SqocS, up the river. fiocQ, a lower part} @Sc@c§, down the river. oocgcS, account, iake; cg<|^800cgoSc@o§, on accdunij or for the sake of mankind.

§75. The following secondary nouns are commonly used without an affix ; and in some instances, are connected with the principal nouns by j^§ instead of dli

od§, a partj portion ; c85§ or cfi,ybr the house.

9dcx>cSaD8, summity extremity; a^a^cScocSo^Zf through^, or to the end of life.

ooSoo^y a circuit; gSSooScx)^! round the hbuse.

o^sojjS^ ditto; c8£o^«ocj]S| <fi^^(7.

oooSo^8a:2|S,e2^^^/ (S^oocSo^scxj)^' ditto.

ocScbZf a whole circuit; coooDooSo^8, during or throughout the time.

000^9 likeness'; c^f^^o^y «n ^e^& 7/ia7zn^.

oecooooS, a&<m^ ^e? mueh^ (obsolete); o^cOoooo^sdbgS, to he about as large as a mavi;

o»9^, aio»t so much; ooj|^8d§i dbout a yehi^.

dd^, e9ewie99i acabrdcknee; ooc^j^^dft^y or ooc^^od^ accord- ing to {his) will.

soc^Ss, measureniient ; o&G^j^§ood§S8) or ooc^dfoocf^Ss, do.

oocGOjOcS) itzn lagreeing with; Odc^|^^ooGG^ocS> or oec^di

oo<j|), (t« mtk^A b«/ 80G[)&Soo(j{p3oSo9gSi to know a^ much as the teacher.

ooeo8, stead; c^cSwot, instead of self

Odcn, a Mng with; tocQ^^ncfj^^ wUh the teaeher-.

ooco» ditto; ^S[?j^§^9gi ditto.

N. 6. In some instances, » or oo, is optionally substituted for the formative od, as ooocoec^oSy for oooopooc^cS, oocf j^^ooijg,

fiOCpj^^OOCgf <fec.

[ 21 ]§76* Some relations of noans are expressed bj means of verbs alsoi as from dBScd^> to arrive at, reach$ maj be formed, -

oS^d^ScoooS (with a continnative affix), unio, or as far aa the house;

cooood^ScoooSi until the time ;

Q^d^Sd^S (the root doubled), through the country; cooood^Sd^S, during the time; in which cases n^ or c§ is understood after the noun} and sometimes expressed.

PRONOUNS.

§77. 6\y li masculine or feminine, is used by a person in speaking to himself of himself, and in addressing inferiors.

og^g(9| <3g}§t9, or 0^1^, /, masculine or femininei is used in addressing equals, and in addressing inferiors poUtelj.

(g^cooSi a servants ogj^cooStf , og]^^> or (xgQ, a female servant, oDo^eooS, a disciple, and ooo^cooSq, o female disciple^ are used as first personals in addressing superiors.

odo^S, I, feminine, is of similar import with cgj^Q, but not in common use.

N. B. The plural affix c§ is sometimes used for the plural of the first personal.

c^oScooS, thou, masculine or feminine, is used to a superior; qSsi* you, masculine, to an equal or an inferior; ««ioS»§, you, masculine, to an inferior; cobS^Sti you^ rather imperious and disrespectful ; qSsqo, youf masculine^ to an inferior^ expressive of disapprobation; g^8 or ^, you, feminine, to an equal or inferior; qoSuSs, you, feminine^ to anj woman^ expressive of disrespect or anger; and fSy you, masculine or feminine, to children, or persons very inferior*

odSf thou, or you, masculine or feminine, is used ^hiedy in writing, and is irrespective of the relative rank of the parties. siSs, you, masculine or feminine is used in judicial language.

^tfSs is also feminine.st.

[ 22 ]ogcSj yoUj masculine or feminine, familiar, and codS, you, mascaline or feminine, disrespectfal, are used vocatively only. coc8 makes cg^, and oDoS, co,^, in the plural.

c^y o, person^ masculine or feminine, supplies the place of the third personals^ h^ and sh^.

co^%* that (thing), neuter, may also be regarded as a third personal.

o^oS and r^oSd^Sy ane^a aelf^. e. my%elf^ yourself^ or Kim^f)^ masculine or feminine, are of either person as the connection requires.

88, on^B adft masculine or femininci is confined to the second and third persons.

§78. The pronouns c), oo^, and oj, in the singular number, not preceded or followed by any adjective or participial adjunct, become c, OD^, and o^i before the oblique, unaspirated affixes (except c§)i tizb r^, Od98> g@o§i ogS^ and dl understood; but when used nominatively, or followed by cS, or by rf expressed, or by an aspirated affix, §§, j^§, |, c^o, or 9, they retain their proper form. Other pronouns, ending in a nasal^ are similarly inflected.

ADJECTIVES.

§70. Adjectives are of three kinds, pronominUl, verbal, and numeral.

§80. Adjectives of either kind are prefixed to their nouns, by means of the connective co^ or cddo, if singular, and this same, or CO ^00^, or aj^codOi if plural, or directly affixed. But to this general rule there are several exceptions, particularly in the pronominals.

§81. An adjective and noun united in either way form a compound word, which admits the plural affix and the affixes of cases, the same as a simple noun.

^00 like th in tA'e.st. [ 23 ]PABTS OF SPEECH — ADJEOTIVES. 23

PSONOMINAL A'DJECnVES.

§82. The followiDg pronominals are prefixed to their noans, in Boroe cases with, and in some without a connective,— cc^^i f§i or ^, being occasionally substitated for co30, before words of time: —

^, thiSf as ^02> this mun; ^03^e^, this day.

oogS, this.

G^, tkatf as GBcjy thqt person f cSqodooo^), or cSccj^ Q09), that time.

od88, that, — infrequentt

Qdf ^, this or thatf — infrequentt

c8 and KX^Sj that, — colloquial.

oooDoS, or cocS, what? — occasionally contracted to <30, before og, as 0003, for O09op9oi^, wh>of — and to od before ooo, as oocoo, what thing? In negative sentences, it combines with the negative particle q, to signify none^ as CDoSo^^^ there is no one. When combined with OdSt, that (thing), it m^aqs %ipkich) as oocooSo3S89 which (tbing)?

ooc8j what f — infrequent* OQ^S, whatever.

Q^, what? whatever. N. 6, q^oo^, ditto, is directly prefixed or affixed.

^o^, such, referring to what has been specified. [ \%% most common use appears to be indefinite, such and suchf such or such.Bt.']

§83. The following pronom}nals are prefixed to their nouns, with the usual connectives:-

cSy SlLCh.

^c§, OD^c§, such, ofthissort^

(j^c§, ooSsc^, suchy of that sorf,

gooooScg, »:§, ^dSd^, Q^d^, of what sort,

Q0@8c§, of whatever sort.

(^c^, and its compoqnds, such a^.

[ 24 ]§84. The follow! Dg, viz. oo^ and oo^, aome^ oo^os* oo§08, and ooolSf other^ oScSS^ and 000^8^9 all, are joined to their nouns according to the general rulei except that when prefixed, the connective is in some instances omitted. 9<So8£8^, allf is prefixed with a connective.

§85. oooj^Si other y 00 coo, many^ oooso^Si aU^ and ooo^s, allt the whole^ are uniformly affixed.

§86. 000^8, when affixed to a noun or a numeral auxiliary, frequently drops the 00, or changes it to e, as esSSo^s, or (S£eo^8f the whole house; (jS^o^s^o^e, or c3£c)^8^eo^8, all the three houses. When affixed to a singular noun, the compound occasionally takes the numeral 00, one^ before it, without a change of meaning, as oogS£c^8, or ooGSSeo^Sy the whole house; oocoSoooeSso^s, the whole ship.

§87. 0DoS&8, how many? is directly prefixed to numeral auxiliaries, or words denoting a part or quantity of a thing, as O06^cScS8O0aSj^So^8, how many mangoes? ODc^cScSsoooSj^SooSs, How many baskets of mangoes?

§88. 80 much^ How much? c&c.j are expressed by combining pronominals with such nouns as oc<jij, OdccoooS, &c., denoting quantity, as ^(jQ, so much, ooo?gcoooS, oooStjgccoocS, how much?

§89. Some pronominals are doubled to form a kind of plural, as c6o^g|09 those goods.

§90. Pronominals are frequently used substantively, and in that character admit the noun affixes.

VEBBAL ADJECTIVES.

§91. Verbal adjectives are made by joining verbal roots to nouns, according to the general rule, as ^oScoooc^, or c^^oS, an excellent man ; but as the verbal root, when prefixed, is susceptible of the accidents of verbs, it is more correct to regard that construction as participial. See under participial affixes, §114.

§92. Verbal adjectives are also formed from verbal roots by prefixing Od, as ooooS, new^ and by reduplicating the root, as cooo88CoooS8, good. Such adjectives are commonly affixed to [ 25 ]their nouns ; but ooflos, from (fpZf to he many^ follows the general rule, as oo^ogcoDoaocp, or oocpoo^og, many teachers.

§93. The imperfect degree of comparison is sometimes made by shortening and redupliqating the verbal root, as ^^, sweetish, from %, to be sweet, o©, bitterish, from ols, to he hitter ; sometimes, by affixing otJ, to the root reduplicated, or reduplicated and shortened, as 96^9^88^8, rather had; and sometimes by affixing reduplicated chiming increments, having oo for an initial to the root in its natural state or shortened, to express a slight degree of the quality, as ^cl?ci§, or ^<§c§, slightly sweetish.

§94. The comparative degree is made, by means of the secondary noun osoocS, or coaocS, and verb, as g85oocS^8cx)^, to he greater than the house, or by a circumlocution of verbs, as 000^^800^, to exceed in greatness, or he greater.

§95. The superlative degree is made, by prefixing 00, and affixing 8^8 to the verbal root^ as oo^oSsos, most excellent; and is joined to nouns according to the general rule, as ooQoSa^8Ccx>o oj^, or c^OdQoS^s, the most excellent man.

KUMEBAL ADJECTIVES.

§96. Numerals are generally combined with a word descriptive of some quality in the noun to which they belong, and in that state are joined to nouns according to the general rule.

§97. If the numeral is less than ten, the auxiliary word is affixed to it (the formative 00, whenever it occurs, being dropped), as gcSa8o^8, or j^8o^8QODO gcS, two cups, from gcS, a cup, ^S, tu}0, and 000^8, round; if it is a capital, number, as ten, twenty, thirty, two hundred, three hundred, &c., the auxiliary is prefixed to it, as gcSooo^s^SsooS, or ooo^sj^SoooSccDOgcS, twenty cups; and if it is a numeral, intervening between the capitals, the auxiliary is both prefixed and affixed, as gcSodcos ^8oooS^So|8, or ooc^sj^SoooS^So^sccDOgoS, twenty-two cups. But in any case in which the auxiliary is prefixed, it may be omitted, as oocfQOol8j^S80oS, or Odolsj^Sso oScoDooocp, twenty teachers^ may be written ooc[pj^aooS, or a8aooSc33oooc[p, and QOCQOOol8j^8oooSj^So)8, or oool8j^SoooSj^§ol8G03oooG(:, twenty-two [ 26 ]teachers, may be written ooc[)&8oooSj^Sol8, or &&ooc$&So)8COOO

§98. The following is a list of the most common numeral auxiliaries, arranged alphabetically, with the classes of things to which they are applied:-

Numeral Auxiliaries. oe§8| a ohief.

ooGcooS, a brute animal.

oocj^oSs, a line. ooooSsi a circle, or ring. 00O| an individual thing.

oo^(9| wJiat is flat.

oocajoSsi a bar, or long piece*

00

g^8, voi

voice.

ooeSs, an extended line.

Odizy what is ridden upon.

Classes of Things.

Rational beings, considered as chief or having subordinates, as Of ^o9^oo§8, one merchant.

Brute animals, as c^DoSj^ coooS, two monkeys.

Things extended in a line, as Q^sa^sc^oSs, three roads.

Rings, nooses, and such like, as cocSg<Scoo8cg88, four rings.

Things which admit no other word more descriptive, as fOoS cl8^, flve hedsteadSf 0^00080^8 c\z^iflve chairs, — frequently used also instead of a more appropriate numeral auxiliary.

Things flat and thin, as <go c§ooS^(9, six mats.

Things long and straight, or nearly so, as 00(9^8c^88, seven needles.

Words, speech, as eo908j|8g^8, eight words.

Things long and straight, or nearly so, as ^c^8e88, nine spears, oocoSooooSe88, ten ships.

Beasts of burden, vehicles of conveyance, as §880088, one horse; oogS8dS88, two carts.

[ 27 ]OdCttoS (uncertain).

008^ (uncertain).

oocoooSy a huilding.

Odoo^y intervening space.

oocx)g8, a piece of cloth.

ooo8> a tree or plant.

Odo)t (uncertain )%

Got, what is flat.

oooc5» tme of a pair.

oOQDcSi an arm, or hand%

000^8, what is round.

Writings, as eoo^8CeoS, three books, or writings.

Deities, as O2G[p8C00882' fo^^ gods; also [gardens^st.] pagodas, and some other articles.

Buildings, as (BScflzQoooSt five houses.

Whatever occurs at intervals of time or place, as ooqs^sc^ocS 00^, six rewards.

Wearing apparel, as oo^^S cx)^, seven coats.

Trees, plants, as 036|[c5oSj|8o8, 'eight mango trees; also thread, hair, &c.

Deities, ecclesiatics, persons in power, any respectable characters, things immaterial, as ttGpr^sols, nine teacherst d8oo oooSJIt, ten duties.

Things which are flat, as a^ 00^98, one hoard.

Things which are naturally joined in pairs, as 00cSj^8ocS, tU)o hands.

Weapons, tools, whatever is used by the hand, as co3foSoot cocS, three guns.

Things round or cubical, or approaching those forms, as d^scoot 0^8, four pots, odSodocIso^s, five boxes.

[ 28 ]oocgoS, what is slender. Things small in bulk, compared to the length, as §Sq§oc^ cgoSy six rivers, oo£s^8cgo9, seven paths.

cooocS, (uncertain.) Rational beings, - generally mankind) or superior beings, as c^jjScoDOcSy eight men,

§99. Sometimes th/9 nonn itself becomes the numeral auxiliary, or is substituted for a descriptive word, as go^sgOi nine villages, w)88aooS«88, ten governors.

§100. Words denoting some part or quantity of a thing are combined with numerals in the same manner as words descriptive of a quality, there being no other difference in the cases, excepting that in the latter the number of individual things merely is expressed; in the former, the number of the parts or quantities of the thing, as cG^^&gcS, or j^6gcSccx>0C6j, two cups of water; em'][9dco6'aS90o9, or ooof(9^S90oSccx)oe)(g][, twenty bundles of paper; aScjcS, two days (odood, timei being understood), literally, two days of time.

§101. The numeral oo, one^ combined with a numeral auxiliary reduplicated, as oo^^y oocoDOC^eodOcS, denotes any one, some one (out of several); when combined with a numeral auxiliary, and the combination reduplicated, as oof ooo, oocoDDcS ooGOOOcS, it denotes one after another (whether every one or several); when combined with a numeral auxiliary, and followed by the same numeral combined with ceo, as oo^oocco, oocooooS oocco (sometimes reversed), it denotes a f&Wf now and then one, here and there one; when combined with a numeral auxiliary, and preceded by the same numeral, combined with ^, as oo^ooo, oo^ooccOocS, it denotes some one^ indefinites Such. combinations may be regarded as pronominal adjectives. They are joined to their nouns, according to the general rule.

§102. Ordinal numerals are of Pali origin, and are prefixed to their nouns, as t]^c8odda^8, M^ second section. Ordinals are also made by affixing G§3dS, A) ra&^, to cardinal numerals, [ 29 ]modified as above, as a6Gy30ocSe§ooScoooo30«, tJie second son; ^Sg^cSc^ocSgodoc^, the second day.

§103. There are a few adjectives which, on accoant of some peculiarity, cannot be placed in either of the foregoing classes. Some of them are prefixed to their nouns, as »coo, greats OdooD9, extraordinary; some are either prefixed or affixed, as o^f^j^* infinite^ cooq^, 07'dtnary ; and some are affixed, as coQOOZ, small; cooS, honorific, «, principalf chi\ef among many; ^Sg, single one^ only, as oocf^^SsogS, in a single day; 00^8 onlyf no more, used with numerals, as oo^oo^s, one only,

§104. Nouns used adjectively may be distributed into three classes, viz: —

1st. Names of races of men, of countries, towns, <&c. when used to qualify a following noun, as ooBcSoS, an Englishman, ooScSoScf, dittOf oo8c8oS^^, England^ the country of the English ; §go, a Burmese^ §go©ooo8, the Burmese language; ^?^?' ^^'^900^j ^^ town of Rangoon, ^?^?S' ditto ^?^^ OD08, or ^^^^(^0008, a son, or native of Rangoon.

2nd. Common nouns used to qualify a following noun, as og, gold, egooDOs, a golden cup ; c^ocS, the north, q^oc8qoS%, the northern path; oogo, the upper part {of a country), oogoo308, an up-country person.

3rd. Names of trees, plants, and their parts, which are only used in combination with a following noun; thus from oScoS, the olivCf are formed ODCoSoS, an olive tree, ODCoSo^, an olive blossom, o5og8d88, an olive (fruit), ODcoSgcS, an olive leaf.

VERBS.

§105. Verbs are of two kinds, transitive, which express actions that pass from the agent to the object, as §oSoo^, to strike, ^6o9^, to love; and intransitive, which express being, or some state of being, or an action which is confined to the agent, as [ 30 ]§8oD^» to is, CfOD^y to remain f ccboSsoo^i to he good^ ^cS OD^, to he ruinedi or «n (z state of ruin,

§106. Many transitive verbs afe formed from intransitive ones, by aspirating the initial letter. If the initial is the first letter of the first or fifth class of consonants, it is changed for its corresponding aspirate, the second letter of tbe class, as cnjOD^, to fall, 9^^ ^ to throw down, or cause to fall; OjcSoDgS, to be ruined, <g^^^* to ruin. If tbe initial is a nasal, or an unclassed letter, it is combined with tbe letter co, as ^oSoD^i to be bent down, jgoSoD^, to hend down; cgoSoD^, to he free, cgoSoo^, to make free.

ACCIDENTS OF VERBS.

§107. The accidents of verbs, expressed in most languages by inflections or auxiliary verbs, are here expressed by particles affixed to the verb, without any inflection of tbe verb itself. The verbal affixes are as follows:-

§108. ASSERTIVE AFFIXES.

cDD^i simply assertive, as cgosoo^^ he goes; in certain combinations, written ccx)o« 

(S, same as oo^i

ojii, simply assertive, in negative sentences, as oagosojg, he goes not, - chiefly colloquial.

cb, present, but scarcely used except substantively, as cposob §SoD^, he is going (see Verbs used substantively, §122), or in a participial clause, according to the note below, as cDofiSobcoot) 00^, the business that now is, or the present business. In the substantive construction, it may be combined with a preceding future affix, as ogosa^cb, or reduplicated, as coosQ^sbebc^S, when he was just about going.

g, past, as 2g38@, he went, or has gone; sometimes future.

[ 31 ]tAf futuroi as Ggo8o|9 he wiU go; sometimes equivalent to the continuative affix c^8| which see.

QgS, future.

0000, or OD^§9 future*

N. B. The assertive affixes of tense, fsb, §, p|, ^^9 and coof^f occasionally lose their assertive power, and become auxiliary to a continuative, participial, or simply asertive affix, in which case (8 becomes ^8»

§109. OONTINUATIVB AFFIXES.

OOjc^, denoting the continuance of an action, or state of being during anotheri as cgo8ccjcS»3£OD^, he eats as he goes ; sometimes equivalent to c^Sh

000, equivalent to o^cS, but commonly repeated after the eame or another verb, as sooSooosooSnoo, joining one with another; ^^00000^000, going up and down^ — used also as a verbal formative.

c^oS^S, denoting the continuance of an action, or state of being during another, but somewhat inconsistent with it, as ogo8c^cS^§eo800^, though going he eats,

cgS, denoting first, the completion of ^n action or state of being prior to another, as agosc^SpODOo^, having gone, he died; second, supposition or conditionality, as c»08ra|8^C9Q^, if he go, he will die.

cooS, same as c^Sjp

^, ^0308, 6JOD08, oo^ODp8, anji oo@80D08, in some combinations equivalent to c^Sn

^, denoting the completion of an action prior to another.

0000^800, from the first of, as cg080Doq^8QO, from the first of his going.

[ 32 ]godSod^S} though^ notwithstanding f as ogDSQCXDSpo^s^cod, though he go, he will not die.

OD©o«, or co|oo©o8, ggSoDO, rfi^^,— infrequent.

«»^^8, OdoogSs t^^'^^,— colloquial.

QOOoSy first, thatf noting a consequence, so that, so as to, as GODGOODScgosoDgS, he went, so that he died; second, that, noting a final end, in order to, as codcoooSooosdd^i he went, that he might die.

§f andf as cgos^coDco^, he went and died; (sometimes pronounced c^;) sometimes equivalent to cgSi

§110. INTERROGATIVE AFFIXES.

(Connected with the verbal root by the assertive affix 03^, being commonly abbreviated to odb)

• ^ / [as cgoscD^ccoD, does he got

oooof "^laminar 9 ) • ••

apSs, — formal, ^ xt , . . . , .

^ I Used m connection with an interrogative

>^^^ ' i — familiar, > pronominal, as 0DoSc8cg08O3f gSs, whither

.' ,, . , \does he go? ops, — colloquial, j

e^, or h, affixed to the root without an intervening affix, as cgose^, does he go? — rather infrequent.

§111. IMPERATIVB AFFIXES.

^, or §(Sy first person plural, as ^os§, let us go,

^o^^oo, [ — formalist.] ditto, preceded by the first personal, as clc§cx)^2g08^a2^o|, let us go, or we will go.

QCOOf [formal,st.] imperative proper, as cgoscoop, go.

co^, dittOf — infrequent.

&^, prohibitory, o being prefixed to the verb, as ^^o^j^^^ go not.

coS, ditto.

§112. The simple root also is imperative, as well as when combined with certain of the euphonic or qualifying affixes, as ol, COOO, CO, ccx), c^, \, o8, c§o8, c©, ccjo, gs, 6^8, ©£t, [ 33 ]iS^c. Some, of these affixes are also variously combined with one another, and with the imperative affixes, to convey the ideas of entreaty, authority, &c.

§113. PRECATIVE AFFIXES,

cecoaoy may, as cgoscecoDOi may he go. [ It is commonly combined with ol, as cgosoloecoDOiiSt. ]

C€)CX>oo^8, dittOf authoritatively, as GSceoDoo^g, be it so.

ceocS, ditto, — infrequent.

§114. PARTICIPIAL AFFIXES.

ca>o, connecting the verb with a subsequent noun, being equivalent to the relative pronoun in most languages, as ^oSqcoo oj^, the excelling man^ or the man who excels j cBscodd^Ss, the running horse, or the horse which runs; CG[pcSQa390DCc§o, the arriving ship, or the ship which arrives ; sometimes contracted to OD, as §OD<j], as much as there is; sometimes dispensing with the verb altogether, as oooSad08cp<j], for oooSopos^cp^, (do) as much as possible^ commonly omitted after the assertive future affix o^H

OD^, ditto,

§115. AUXILIARY AFFIXES OF TENSE.

QOD8, denoting present continuance, as cooscoosoo^, he is still going ; ocoossoos, he is still not gone, or he is not yet gone; sometimes denoting beside, more than, in addition, as c©odo8ooo Qcx^oSi ©o§jco38oo^, there is not only my word, but there is scripture also.

\, just past, as ogos^oD^, he has Just gone; frequently written c^; very frequently euphonic.

ojg, past indefinite, as ^gosogsoD^, he went. In negative sentences, prefixed by ©, it becomes (j%, and signifies (not) ever, as QCgote^s, he never went. ©dSs and ecoooSs are of similar import, but infrequent.

[ 34 ]j§, prior-pasti or prior-futnre, according to the connection, as ^os^^@, hs Twd gone^ ^osj^SwgS, he will go (before another goes )•

oo§, prior-past or prior-future, — infrequent. 08, ditto, — rather infrequent.

^, near future, about to% on the point of^ retaining its meaning, whatever affixes of tense are superadded, as ogoto^o3^, cg08C^§, or cgoso^o^, he is about to go^ or is near going; sometimes used substantively, though not an assertive affix, as cgoscf ^8^, ditto.

§116. AFFIXES OF NUMBER.

@' Of^^i @^^9 denoting the plural, as ogo8^03^, they go; — frequently omitted, and the idea of plurality left to be conveyed by the noun affix of number, or gathered from the connection.

§117. QUALIFYING AFFIXES,

(arranged alphabetically.)

%% (pron. oS«,) more or again^ commonly used with an assertive future affix, as coooc5§Â«Â«^, he will drinJc more^ or again; in prohibitive sentences, (not) yet^ as «ccx>ocS^§§8, do not drink yet.

•odS, entirely^ wholly f (from a^^, to come to an end)^ as coocoS@, they are all dead*

coooSj, with the verb repeated, probably^ as coDCooo88COO«^, he will probably die.

q8, see §d

\ (see Dictionary).

^8, optative, to wish, desire^ as §^^803^, to wish to do; also, to have a tendency tOf as (2)08^8oD^, to be disposed to fever.

9188, with tf prefixed to the root and to itself, and a continuative affix or clause, commonly d58cooo8, expressed or understood, until, as «a308«^88cl§8cooo8a25o5JC^c^cx>^, he continued working until he went.

[ 35 ]6^1 causal (from ce to send, order), as ^ceoo^y he makes (him) doj ^ScOi let it be; when affixed to intransitive verbs, equivalent to the aspirated initial; as cgoSceoD^, equivalent to ogoSoo^, to make free, from cooSoo^, to be free.

When used as an imperative or precative, the shade of meaning is frequently determinded by an intervening euphonic affix, as ^Solce, may it be, cGsoleoDce, let it run. Combined with o| it makes 2Sn

CBOcSy with Q prefixed to the root, and followed by ©ooj or 00(^c§, not proper, or desirable, as QSgosceocScooj) or QCgot ceooSoDc^c^^SoD^, it was not well to go, (on account of some evil that has just befallen).

gy slightly intensive or emphatic, - commonly connected with the verb by a euphonic affix^ and sometimes superseding the assertive affix, as ^scoogi it is great, indeed.

eby intensive, — mostly used before the participial affix coDo, as Co8fiOCOD002> a very excellent person.

8oSt, with the verb repeated, Just that and no more, merely, nothing mjore, as ^soo^s^soD^, to be large merely^

dBc8 (from dBoS, to be quiet), to be quiet, unmoved (though the occasion calls for exertion); as Q^£cSto^, to remain unmoved.

«b, though put down by Pali grammarians as denoting the present tense, denotes in common usage the immediate future, as QC[pcS8b§03^, to be about to arrive, or on the point of arriving, equivalent to ccpcSc^Q ; and when repeated, and especially when prefixed by a future affix, is more directly future, as ccpcS sbiab, or cc^pcS^^sbob, to be about arriving before long.

0^, sometimes euphonic, but when repeated after a following verb, partaking of the nature of a con tin native, and denoting alternation ; as ^oSopcoTopQoDgS, to be sinking and appearing by turns.

goo;, denoting a slight necessity.

[ 36 ]00^, directly, at once, as ogosoD^OD^, to go directly, at once.

^8, sometimes in converation SS, potential, to be able (from |8, to prevail, overcome)^ as ogos^SoD^, to he able to go.

^^, again (from §S, to retnrn\ as 3@^^gS, to do again:

oi, with « prefixed to the root, and a continuative affix expressed or understood, without, as oeosc^cgosos^, he went without eating.

8, implying carelessness or fault, as c^o8§9 he has said it (and therefore committed himself); sometimes euphonic.

S, with ^ prefixed to the root, and a continuative affix expressed or understood, before, as (^Ggos^eosdD^, he ate before going; combined with cl^8eQd38, until, as QCgos^d^ 8000389 nutil he went; — sometimes taking a noun affix, as ^2g08^|y before going.

c^, must, as cg08C|tf^9 he must go; frequently euphonic.

c^cSi to he capable, (in regard to feeling), as odoSc^cSod^i to be unfeeling enough to kill; «cgoG|^oS, he cannot bear to part.

c^8, remaining behind, as ^c^S^^) to do (it), remaining behind, Cf c^Soo^y to stay behind.

GQ9, denoting disapprobation or regret; sometimes euphonic, particularly when used imperatively.

j|0, denoting affection or sympathy in the speaker, as cgosQO 00^, he goes, alas!

cg^8, denoting excess, (from c^^, to exceed), as cco^SscoSsoDgS^ to be too good.

0^, very, as ^so^oD^, to be very great.

To these may be added a number of verbs, which are occasionally used to qualify a principal verb, as, -

oo5, to he right, proper, as cg0800(9c»^, it is right to go; sometimes passive, in translation from the Pali, particularly when used as an adversative to oooS; frequently euphonic.

00D8 to be at leisure, as 0^38009303^, to be at leisure to go.

900388, to be good, as c;g3(ecx>3S803^9 it is good to go.

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This work published before January 1, 1923 is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.