neolithische Station von Butmir (Vienna 1895–1898); P. Ballif, Römische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following books:—A. Theiner, Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia (Rome, 1860) and Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium (1. Rome, 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),—these are collections of Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, Monumenta historica Slavorum Meridionalium (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum, &c. (Belgrade, 1860–1862); F. Miklosich, Monumenta Serbica (Vienna, 1858). Other important authorities are G. Lucio, De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666); M. Orbini, Regno degli Slavi (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and others, Illyricum Sacrum (Venice, 1751–1819); C. du Fresne du Cange, Illyricum vetus et novum (1746); M. Simek, Politische Geschichte des Königreiches Bosnien und Rama (Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, Histoire du Monténégro et de la Bosnie (Paris, 1895). See also V. Klaić, Geschichte Bosniens (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaïkovitch (Spalajković), in La Bosnie et l’Herzégovine (Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration. (K. G. J.)
BOSPORUS, or Bosphorus (Gr. Βόσπορος = ox-ford, traditionally
connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of
a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings).
By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially
applied to the Bosporus Cimmerius (see below), and the Bosporus
Thracius; but when used without any adjective it now denotes
the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora
and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The
channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the
northern entrance of 234 m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds.,
and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In
the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea
of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction
below the surface and along the shores. The surface current
varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at
narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very
rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and
the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople
lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in modern times.
The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern portion
of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte;
but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing
formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls,
quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various
kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and
beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded
shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences
of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under
Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the
treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other
than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the
Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also
Constantinople.)
BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits
of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azov; the Cimmerii (q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The
straits are about 25 m. long and 212 m. broad at the narrowest,
and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the
peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus.
This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands
intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various
sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek
cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of
all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on
the east Phanagoria (Sênnája), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus,
Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians,
Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th century B.C., but
Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum
had some connexion with Athens—at least it appears to have
been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left
hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous
barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful
objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens,
textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The
numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.
According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was governed from 480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438–431 B.C.), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 B.C. The Spartocids have left many inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete list of them. Satyrus (431–387), the successor of Spartocus, established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon (387–347) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war in which Eumelus (310–303) was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303–283) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway against the power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges. We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up decrees in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself. Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces, another of the old king’s sons. After the death of Mithradates (B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63–47) made his submission to Pompey, but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, until 16 B.C. After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon (14–8) in his place. To him succeeded Aspurgus (8 B.C.–A.D. 38?), son of Asander, who founded a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341. These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.) introduced by him, regularly placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (A.D. 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D. 341, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The
