ten weeks which elapsed before the release of the last larva, he kept close to them, at times crawling among the coiled mass of egg-strings or lifting them up, evidently for the purpose of aeration. The larva on leaving the egg is about an inch long, provided with three branched external gills on each side, and showing mere rudiments of the four limbs.
CRYPTOGRAPHY (from Gr. κρύπτος, hidden, and γράφειν,
to write), or writing in cipher, called also steganography (from
Gr. στεγάνη, a covering), the art of writing in such a way as to
be incomprehensible except to those who possess the key to the
system employed. The unravelling of the writing is called
deciphering. Cryptography having become a distinct art,
Bacon (Lord Verulam) classed it (under the name ciphers) as
a part of grammar. Secret modes of communication have been in
use from the earliest times. The Lacedemonians had a method
called the scytale, from the staff (σκυτάλη) employed in constructing
and deciphering the message. When the Spartan ephors
wished to forward their orders to their commanders abroad, they
wound slantwise a narrow strip of parchment upon the σκυτάλη
so that the edges met close together, and the message was then
added in such a way that the centre of the line of writing was
on the edges of the parchment. When unwound the scroll
consisted of broken letters; and in that condition it was
despatched to its destination, the general to whose hands it
came deciphering it by means of a σκυτάλη exactly corresponding
to that used by the ephors. Polybius has enumerated other
methods of cryptography.
The art was in use also amongst the Romans. Upon the revival of letters methods of secret correspondence were introduced into private business, diplomacy, plots, &c.; and as the study of this art has always presented attractions to the ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the result.
John Trithemius (d. 1516), the abbot of Spanheim, was the first important writer on cryptography. His Polygraphia, published in 1518, has passed through many editions, and has supplied the basis upon which subsequent writers have worked. It was begun at the desire of the duke of Bavaria; but Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the ground that it would be injurious to public interests. A Steganographia published at Lyons (? 1551) and later at Frankfort (1606), is also attributed to him. The next treatises of importance were those of Giovanni Battista della Porta, the Neapolitan mathematician, who wrote De furtivis litterarum notis, 1563; and of Blaise de Vigenere, whose Traité des chiffres appeared in Paris, 1587. Bacon proposed an ingenious system of cryptography on the plan of what is called the double cipher; but while thus lending to the art the influence of his great name, he gave an intimation as to the general opinion formed of it and as to the classes of men who used it. For when prosecuting the earl of Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and Overbury “had cyphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the great men,—things seldom used but either by princes and their ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practise against or, at least, upon princes.”
Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with the art. John Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published in 1641 an anonymous treatise entitled Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger,—a small but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely gift to the diplomatists and leaders of the Civil War. The deciphering of many of the royalist papers of that period, such as the letters that fell into the hands of the parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe been charged on the celebrated mathematician Dr John Wallis (Athen. Oxon. iii. 1072), whose connexion with the subject of cipher-writing is referred to by himself in the Oxford edition of his mathematical works, 1689, p. 659; as also by John Davys. Dr Wallis elsewhere states that this art, formerly scarcely known to any but the secretaries of princes, &c., had grown very common and familiar during the civil commotions, “so that now there is scarce a person of quality but is more or less acquainted with it, and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it.” Subsequent writers on the subject are John Falconer (Cryptomenysis patefacta), 1685; John Davys (An Essay on the Art of Decyphering: in which is inserted a Discourse of Dr Wallis), 1737; Philip Thicknesse (A Treatise on the Art of Decyphering and of Writing in Cypher), 1772; William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article “Cipher” in Rees’s Cyclopaedia), 1819; and G. von Marten (Cours diplomatique), 1801 (a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851). Perhaps the best modern work on this subject is the Kryptographik of J. L. Klüber (Tübingen, 1809), who was drawn into the investigation by inclination and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of cryptography are classified. Amongst others of lesser merit who have treated of this art may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis of Worchester, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schott, 1665; Ludwig Heinrich Hiller, 1682; Comiers; 1690; Baring, 1737; Conrad, 1739, &c. See also a paper on Elizabethan Cipher-books by A. J. Butler in the Bibliographical Society’s Transactions, London, 1901.
Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down the following as the “virtues” to be looked for in them:—“that they be not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher; and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion.” These principles are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced, including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his admirers as “one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cypher, and the most difficult to be decyphered, of any yet contrived” (Thicknesse, p. 13).
The simplest and commonest of all the ciphers is that in which the writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other letters in regular advance. This method of transposition was used by Julius Caesar. He, “per quartam elementorum literam,” wrote d for a, e for b, and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in the Jewish rabbis, and even in the sacred writers. An illustration of it occurs in Jeremiah (xxv. 26), where the prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction from all but the initiated, writes Sheshak instead of Babel (Babylon), the place meant; i.e. in place of using the second and twelfth letters of the Hebrew alphabet (b, b, l) from the beginning, he wrote the second and twelfth (sh, sh, k) from the end. To this kind of cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from a the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and th the last; b the second from the beginning, and h the second from the end). Another Jewish cabalism of like nature was called Albam; of which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6, where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English this method of transposition, of which there are many modifications, is comparatively easy to decipher. A rough key may be derived from an examination of the respective quantities of letters in a type-founder’s bill, or a printer’s “case.” The decipherer’s first business is to classify the letters of the secret message in the order of their frequency. The letter that occurs oftenest is e; and the next in order of frequency is t. The following groups come after these, separated from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence:—a, o, n, i; r, s, h; d, l; c, w, u, m; f, y, g, p, b; v, k; x, q, j, z. All the single letters must be a, I or O. Letters occurring together are ee, oo, ff, ll, ss, &c. The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in the order of their frequency) of, to, in, it, is, be, he, by, or, as, at, an, so, &c. The commonest words of three letters are the and and (in great excess), for, are, but, all, not, &c.; and of four letters—that, with, from, have, this, they, &c. Familiarity with the composition of the language will suggest numerous other points that are of value to the decipherer. He may obtain other hints from Poe’s tale called The Gold Bug. As to messages in the continental languages constructed upon this system of transposition, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt’s Ars decifratoria (1737), and other treatises.
Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters and alphabets yet they might be in words. Upon this basis codes have been constructed, classified words taken from dictionaries being made to represent complete ideas. In recent
