utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about 500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improvement of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United States Steel Corporation.
GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation
of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous
product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other
carbonaceous matter (see below, section Gas Manufacture; for
gas engines see the separate heading Gas Engine).
The Gaseous State.—Matter is studied under three physical phases—solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes grouped as “fluids.” The study of the physical properties of fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named pneumatics.
The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and transforming their energy—as is betrayed to our hearing in the whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.
The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may be stated in dynamical language thus:—solids can sustain a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in contact with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of Sir Oliver Lodge: “A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape.”
It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a “vapour.” The latter possesses the physical property stated above which distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction of the term “permanent gases” to denote gases which were apparently not liquefiable. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term meaningless (see Liquid Gases). The term “perfect gas” is applied to an imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which any molecule is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences.
The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, in Greek cosmology, “air” (πνεῦμα) was one of the fundamental elements. The alchemists used such terms as spiritus, flatus, halitus, aura, emanatio nubila, &c., words implying a “wind” or “breath.” The word “gas” was invented by J. B. van Helmont in his Ortus medicinae, posthumously published in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded a “spirit,” which he named spiritus sylvestris on account of its supposed untamable nature (“Gas sylvestre sive incoërcibile, quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile”); and he invented the word “gas” in the expression: “... this spirit, hitherto unknown, ... I call by a new name gas” (“hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine gas voco”). The word was suggested by the Gr. χάος, chaos, for he also writes: “I have called this spirit gas, it being scarcely distinguishable from the Chaos of the ancients” (“halitum illum Gas vocavi, non longe a Chao veterum secretum”). The view that the word was suggested by the Dutch geest, spirit, is consequently erroneous. Until the end of the 18th century the word “air,” qualified by certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known—a custom due in considerable measure to the important part which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.
The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essentially general properties, such as the weight and density, the relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally properties independent of composition. These subjects are discussed in the articles Density; Thermometry; Calorimetry; Diffusion; Conduction of Heat; and Condensation of Gases. The latter has for its province the preparation, collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The historical development of the chemistry of gases—pneumatic chemistry—is treated in the article Chemistry; the technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under Gas Analysis. Connecting the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is discussed in the article Molecule, has for its purpose (1) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties, and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical composition.
Gas Analysis.—The term “gas analysis” is given to that branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue gases (in which much information is gained as to the completeness and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is necessary to have a product of a definite composition within certain limits). There are, in addition, many other branches of chemical technology in which the methods are employed. In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not employed in technology, where time is an important factor and moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an outline of the technical practice will be given.
The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a
