educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the battles of the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour, and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of 1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded, and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.). Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promotion to major-general in 1881. In command of the advanced force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received the K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful battles of El Teb and Tamai. On his return home he received the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general for distinguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). In 1896 he was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant Royal Engineers. He died on the 17th of December 1899. He published in 1875 a translation of Goetze’s Operations of the German Engineers in 1870–1871, and in 1887 Last Words with Gordon.
GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792–1861),
British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Naworth,
Cumberland, on the 1st of June 1792, and was educated at
Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university,
while making the “grand tour” abroad, he became private
secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England
in 1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the
Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820.
In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered
parliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon
exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year
he published a pamphlet entitled “Corn and Currency,” which
brought him into prominence as a man of advanced Liberal
opinions; and he became one of the most energetic advocates
in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
Grey’s administration he received the post of first lord of the
admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he
sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions
on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal
from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the
Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in
1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for
Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert
Peel as secretary of state for the home department, a post he
retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable
odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church
question prior to the “disruption” of 1843; and in 1844 the
detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant
raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed
by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of
investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in
the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen’s cabinet as first lord
of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short
time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of
a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian
war ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He
continued as a private member to exercise a considerable influence
on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby,
Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.
His Life, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.
GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794–1851), American dietarian,
was born in Suffield, Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst
College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826,
but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent
advocate of temperance reform and of vegetarianism, having
persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause of abnormal
cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died
at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September
1851. His name is now remembered because of his advocacy
of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as the originator of “Graham
bread.” But his reform was much broader than this. He urged,
primarily, physiological education, and in his Science of Human
Life (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858)
furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
carefully planned a complete regimen including many details
besides a strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding
House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath
Nicholson, who published Nature’s Own Book (2nd ed., 1835)
giving Graham’s rules for boarders; and in Boston a Graham
House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.
There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly called The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham, edited by David Campbell. Graham wrote Essay on Cholera (1832); The Esculapian Tablets of the Nineteenth Century (1834); Lectures to Young Men on Chastity (2nd ed., 1837); and Bread and Bread Making; and projected a work designed to show that his system was not counter to the Holy Scriptures.
GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805–1869), British chemist, born at
Glasgow on the 20th of December 1805, was the son of a merchant
of that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow with
the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church.
But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773–1852),
the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental
science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which
formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After
graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of
Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow
gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry,
until the year 1829, when he was appointed lecturer in the
Mechanics’ Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure
(1778–1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian Institution,
and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College,
London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir
John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his
death on the 16th of September 1869. The onerous duties
his work at the Mint entailed severely tried his energies, and
in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the
cares of official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament.
The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861
and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he engaged.
Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836,
and a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847,
while Oxford made him a D.C.L. in 1855. He took a leading part
in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish
societies, and served as first president of both, in 1841 and 1846.
Towards the close of his life the presidency of the Royal Society
was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline the honour.
Graham’s work is remarkable at once for its originality and for the simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded in Transactions, but his first published paper, “On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids,” appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases. “Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting speculations, the experimental information we possess
