nationaux des églises réformées de France (2 vols.); J. Quick,
Synodicon (2 vols., London, 1692), important for the ecclesiastical
history of French Protestantism; D’Huisseau, La Discipline des
églises réformées de France (Amsterdam, 1710); H. de Rohan,
Mémoires ... jusqu’en 1629 (Amsterdam, 1644); Jean Claude,
Les Plaintes des Protestans de France (Cologne, 1686, new edition
with notes by Frank Puaux, Paris, 1885); Pierre Jurieu, Lettres
pastorales (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1688); Brousson, État des Réformés
de France (3 vols., The Hague, 1685); Anquez, Histoire des assemblées
politiques des réformés de France (1 vol., Paris, 1859); Pilatte,
Édits et arrêts concernant la religion prétendue réformée, 1662–1711
(1889); Douen, Les Premiers pasteurs du Désert (2 vols., 1879);
H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (2 vols., New York).
18th Century.—Peyrat, Histoire des pasteurs du Désert (2 vols., 1842); Ch. Coquerel, Histoire des églises du Désert (2 vols., 1841); E. Hugues, Antoine Court, Histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en France (2 vols., 1872); Les Synodes du Désert (3 vols., 1875); A. Coquerel, Jean Calas (1869); Court de Gebelin, Les Toulousaines (1763).
19th Century.—Die protestantische Kirche Frankreichs (2 vols., 1848); Annuaire de Rabaut 1807, de Soulier 1827, de De Prat 1862, (1878); Agenda protestant de Frank Puaux (1880–1894); Agenda annuaire protestant de Gambier (1895–1907); Bersier, Histoire du Synode de 1872 (2 vols.); Frank Puaux, Les Œuvres du protestantisme français au XIXe siècle. See also Camisards, Calvin, Edict of Nantes. (F. Px.)
HUGUES, CLOVIS (1851–1907), French poet and socialist, was born at Menerbes in Vaucluse on the 3rd of November 1851. He studied for the priesthood, but did not take orders. For some revolutionary articles in the local papers of Marseilles he was condemned in 1871 to three years’ imprisonment and a fine of 6000 francs. In 1877 he fought a duel in which he killed his adversary, a rival journalist. Elected deputy by Marseilles
in the general elections of 1881, he was at that time the sole
representative of the Socialist party in the chambers. He was
re-elected in 1885, and in 1893 became one of the deputies for
Paris, retaining his seat until 1906. He died on the 11th of June 1907.
His poems, novels and comedies are full of wit and exuberant vitality.
His principal works are: Poèmes de prison (1875), written during his detention, Soirs de bataille (1883); Jours de combat (1883); and Le Travail (1889); the novels, Madame Phaéton (1885) and Monsieur le gendarme (1891); and the dramas, Une étoile (1888) and Le sommeil de Danton (1888).
HUICHOL (pronounced Veetchol—a corruption of the native
name Vishalika or Virarika, doctors or healers), a tribe of Mexican
Indians living in a mountainous region on the eastern side of the
Chapalagana river, Jalisco. Huichol tradition assigns the south
as their place of origin. Their name of “healers” is deserved,
for about one-fourth of the men are Shamans. The Huichols are
in much the same social condition as at the time of the Aztec
empire. They were conquered by the Spaniards in 1722.
For full description of the people and their habits see Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (1903).
HUITZILOPOCHTLI, the supreme being in the religions of ancient Mexico, and as a specialized deity, the god of war. He
was the mythic leader and chief divinity of the Aztecs, dominant
tribe of the Nahua nation. As a humming-bird Huitzilopochtli
was alleged to have led the Aztecs to a new home. E. B. Tylor
(Primitive Culture, 4th ed., vol. ii. p. 307) calls him an “inextricable
compound parthenogenetic deity”; and finds, in
the fact that his chief festival (when his paste idol was shot
through with an arrow, and afterwards eaten) was at the winter
solstice, ground for believing that he was at first a nature-god,
whose life and death were connected with the year’s. His idol
was a huge block of basalt (still thought to be preserved in Mexico),
on one side of which he is sculptured in hideous form, adorned with
the feathers of the humming-bird. The ceremonies of his worship
were of the most bloodthirsty character, and hundreds of human
beings were murdered annually before his shrine, their limbs
being eaten by his worshippers. When his temple was dedicated
in 1486 it is traditionally reported that 70,000 people were killed.
See Mexico.
HULDA, in Teutonic mythology, goddess of marriage. She was a beneficent deity, the patroness and guardian of all maidens
(see Berchta).
HULKE, JOHN WHITAKER (1830–1895), British surgeon
and geologist, was born on the 6th of November 1830, being the
son of a well-known medical practitioner at Deal. He was
educated partly at a boarding-school in this country, partly
at the Moravian College at Neuwied (1843–1845), where he gained
an intimate knowledge of German and an interest in geology
through visits to the Eifel district. He then entered King’s
College school, and three years later commenced work at the
hospital, becoming M.R.C.S. in 1852. In the Crimean War he
volunteered, and was appointed (1855) assistant-surgeon at
Smyrna and subsequently at Sebastopol. On returning home
he became medical tutor at his old hospital, was elected F.R.C.S.
in 1857, and afterwards assistant-surgeon to the Royal Ophthalmic
Hospital, Moorfields (1857), and surgeon (1868–1890).
In 1870 he became surgeon at the Middlesex hospital, and here
much of his more important surgical work was accomplished.
His skill as an operator was widely known: he was an excellent
general surgeon, but made his special mark as an ophthalmologist,
while as a geologist he attained a European reputation.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1867 for his researches on the anatomy
and physiology of the retina in man and the lower animals,
particularly the reptiles. He subsequently devoted all his spare
time to geology and especially to the fossile reptilia, describing
many remains of Dinosaurs, to our knowledge of which as well as
of other Saurians he largely contributed. In 1887 the Wollaston
medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London.
He was president of both the Geological and Pathological Societies
in 1883, and president of the Royal College of Surgeons from
1893 until his death. He was a man with a wide range of knowledge
not only of science but of literature and art. He died in
London on the 19th of February 1895.
HULL, ISAAC (1775–1843), commodore in the U.S. navy, was
born at Derby in Connecticut on the 9th of March 1775. He
went to sea young in the merchant service and was in command
of a vessel at the age of nineteen. In 1798 he was appointed
lieutenant in the newly organized U.S. navy. From 1803 to
1805 he served in the squadron sent to chastise the Barbary
pirates as commander of the “Enterprise,” but was transferred
to the “Argus” in November of 1803. When the War of 1812
broke out he was captain of the U.S. frigate “Constitution” (44),
and was on a mission to Europe carrying specie for the payment
of a debt in Holland. The “Constitution” was shadowed by
British men-of-war, but was not attacked. In July of that year,
however, he was pursued by a squadron of British vessels, and
escaped by good seamanship and the fine sailing qualities of the
“Constitution.” He was to have been superseded, but put to sea
before the officer who was to have relieved him arrived—an action
which might have been his ruin if he had not signalized his cruise
by the capture of the British frigate “Guerrière” (38). Captain
Hull had been cruising off the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the engagement,
which took place on the 19th of August, was fought south
of the Grand Bank. The “Constitution” was a fine ship of 1533
tons, originally designed for a two-decker, but cut down to a
frigate. The “Guerrière” was of 1092 tons and very ill-manned,
while the “Constitution” had a choice crew. The British ship
was easily overpowered. Hull received a gold medal for the
capture of the “Guerrière,” but had no further opportunity of
distinction in the war. After the peace he held a variety of
commands at sea, and was a naval commissioner from 1815 to
1817. He had a high reputation in the United States navy for
practical seamanship. He died at Philadelphia on the 13th of
February 1843.
HULL, a city (1875) and railway junction of the province of
Quebec, Canada, and the capital of Wright county, opposite the
city of Ottawa. Pop. (1901) 13,988. The magnificent water-power
of the Chaudière Falls of the Ottawa is utilized for the
lighting of the city, the operation of a system of electric railways
connecting Hull with Ottawa and Aylmer, and a number of large
saw-mills, pulp, paper and match manufactories. Hull has gone
through several disastrous fires, but since that of 1900, which
swept out most of the town, an efficient system of fire protection
has been established. Three bridges unite Ottawa and Hull.
