quite absent in Sphenodon. A falciform process and other remnants of a campanula are absent. In most of those reptiles which have but a rudimentary pecten, the retina is supplied by hyaloid vessels which spread over the surface of the vitreous body; such superficial vessels disappear with a greater development of the pecten, and the retina receives a choroid supply; special retinal arteries from the a. centralis retinae, and veins, exist in snakes.
Ciliary processes of the choroid are usually small, a proper cillary body being least developed in crocodiles; all reptiles have a ciliary muscle. The shape of the contracted pupil varies from round to a vertical slit; the latter is most marked in Sphenodon.
The retina shows usually a fovea centralis, sometimes but slightly indicated by a shallow depression; it is well marked in chameleons. The retina contains only cones, rods being absent; fat-drops on the apex of the cones are common; their usual colours are green and blue.
6. The pineal, median or parietal eye is the terminal organ of the epiphysis of the brain, with which it is connected by a nerve-containing string. Among recent reptiles it exists in Sphenqdon and in the Lacertilia, with vestiges in snakes. It is embedded in the median parietal foramen. Externally its presence is generally marked by the scales being arranged in a rosette, with a transparent central scale. The organ itself is distinctly a dioptric apparatus; with all the essential features of an eye; a pigmented retina of the arthropodous simple type surrounds an inner chamber which is nearly filled by a cellular globular mass which projects into it from above; this is the so-called lens, in reality much more like the corpus vitreum in its still cellular condition, while the real lens has to be looked for in the superimposed tissue. The whole organ is best developed in Sphenodon, even in the adult; but whether it is still functional, and what its function is, remain unknown. The throwing of a beam of light upon this eye, by means of a lens, produces no effect. Whilst in Sphenodon the “lens” is rather dull and the efferent nerve is still present, in various lizards the “lens” is more perfect, but the nerve is degenerated. We conclude that the whole organ is now without the least visual function, whilst in various extinct groups of reptiles and Stegocephali it was fully developed. It has been well investigated by de Graaff, W. B. Spencer and A. Dendy.
The Muscular System.
A useful account of the differentiation of the muscles in the main reptilian groups, with their almost endless modifications in correlation with walking, climbing, swimming, gliding and burrowing, with limbs complete or absent, would fill several pages of this article and would necessitate many illustrations. The literature is great; it comprises many good detailed descriptions of various kinds of reptiles, and several monographs. M. Fürbringer has devoted a whole series to the muscles of the neck, shoulder-girdle and fore limbs. Hand in hand with these investigations went that of the innervation, without which myology would lack scientific value. The present writer has devoted much time to the muscles and nerves of the pelvis and hind limbs, and has, in tabular form, compared them with those of other vertebrates. The results of all these labours are rather disappointing, except for the study of myology as such, which raises many interesting questions. Broadly speaking, the muscles of typical reptiles, crocodiles and lizards are more highly differentiated (by no means always more numerous, but more individualized by origin and insertion, the behaviour of the tendons), more effectively disposed according to mechanical principles, than in Batrachia, and less than in birds and mammals. This can easily be proved, whether we take for comparison the muscles of the neck, of the larynx or hyoid, or limbs. Lowest in general stands Sphenodon, next to it the lizards, highest the crocodiles, while tortoises and snakes show the greatest reduction and specialization. In the tortoises it is the non-yielding box of carapace and plastron which has caused great changes within the region of the trunk proper. First, all the epiaxial muscles have vanished; the same applies to the costal muscles; but traces of dorso-lateral muscles occur on the inside of the posterior half of the carapace, extending as a longitudinal system from one transverse process to the next in many of the lower aquatic tortoises, as perfectly useless vestiges; or more striking, these muscles exist in the young, and disappear with age, for instance in Testudo. Secondly, it is rather surprising that the rigid shell has offered so little or no inducement to the muscles of the girdles, neck and tail to transfer their origins upon it. Thirdly, the retractile neck of the typical cryptodirous tortoises is correlated with a pair of long retractor muscles, which in the shape of a pair of broad, vertical ribbons (between which is received the S-kinked neck) extend far back along the vertebral column, almost to the level of the pelvis.
In snakes, owing to the loss of limbs and girdles, only the spinal and costal muscles remain, besides of course those of the abdomen and the visceral arches. The vestigial muscles of the limbless lizards and of the peropodous snakes have been mono graphed by Fürbringer in much detail without great results.
Respiratory Organs.
All reptiles breathe by lungs, and they possess no vestiges of gills, not even during their embryonic stages, although gill clefts are invariably present in the embryo. Nor does any part of the outer skin assist respiration, as is so commonly the case in Batrachia; yet, strictly speaking, the lungs are not the only organs of respiration in the class of reptiles, since various tortoises possess additional breathing apparatus in the anal sacs and in certain recesses of the throat, to be mentioned farther on.
The Larynx, instead of lying at the bottom and far back in the throat, as in the Batrachia, is considerably moved forwards so as to rest upon the hyoid and to project into the pharyngeal cavity. A pair of arytenoid cartilages, enclosing the glottis, rest upon several more or less fused tracheal cartilages, which thus represent the cricoid, but there is no thyroid cartilage. A small process from the anterior median edge of the cricoid is the beginning of an epiglottis. Vocal chords are indicated by lateral projecting folds of the inner membranous lining of the larynx, and are in a few cases effective in producing a voice. Crocodiles and alligators have a powerful, loud, bellowing voice; many tortoises utter weak, piping sounds, especially during the pairing season; and also various lizards can emit a feeble squeak, for instance, Psammodromus hispanicus, and the geckos. Sphenodon, at least the males, can grunt. Snakes have no voice; they can only hiss like all other reptiles, but a curious modification exists in the larynx of the North American Coluber s. Pityophis, e.g. C. melanoleucus: the epiglottis is more enlarged, and laterally compressed so that the hissing sound is much strengthened by the vibration of the epiglottis. The larynx possesses a constrictor and a dilator muscle, which arise from the arytenoids and from the cricoid respectively, and are attached to the hyoid. Chameleons have bladder-shaped sacs which can be filled with air from a slit immediately below the larynx. For further modifications see G. Tornier.
The Trachea is furnished with cartilaginous rings and semirings, which extend to the lungs. As a rule the trachea is straight; in Crocodilus americanus it forms a loop; and similar curvings occur in various tortoises in correlation with the retractile neck. The two bronchi are shortest in Sphenodon, very long in most tortoises, where they begin frequently already half down the neck. In Sphargis most of the trachea is divided by a longitudinal partition. It is an advance upon amphibian conditions that the bronchus enters its lung no longer at its apex, since an anterior, pre-bronchial lung-portion has come into existence. This is still very short in Sphenodon, while in crocodiles, tortoises and in the highly developed Varanidae the bronchus enters near the middle of its lung, so that the anterior portion is nearly as long as the posterior. The shape of the trunk influences that of the lungs. In the snake-shaped forms, both snakes and lizards alike, the lungs have become
