as of the line of Elimelech and Mahlon (Naomi's husband and son). In point of fact, a nearer kinsman than Boaz had agreed to purchase the estate (as gōēl), which Naomi evidently had not yet sold (see commentaries on iv. 3); but he was unwilling to marry Ruth (reading in ver. 5, “ and also Ruth thou must buy ”; cf. ver. 10), recognizing that if a son were born the estate would revert to the line of Elimelech, thus leaving him at a disadvantage. He was evidently unprepared for what seems a novel condition (contrast Boaz in iii. 12 seq.), although, from the felicitations in iv. 11–13, the issue of the marriage is actually reckoned to the husband (Boaz). It is improbable that these conflicting features in v. 11-13 and ver. 17a, and all that they involve, co-existed, and it is possible that the former (with the implied reference to the coming David) is not part of the original. However, as in the equally complicated story in Gen. xxxviii., it is difficult to trace the extent or growth of the various motives, e.g. the primary interest in Naomi, the romantic marriage of Ruth, the selling of the land (which comes only in ch. iv.), &c.
Literature.—See S. R. Driver, Literature of Old Testament, who, with C. F. Kent (Beginnings of Heb. Hist. p. 310 seq.), favours a pre-exilic origin. An exilic date has found the support of Ewald and Konig, but that it is now of the post-exilic age is the opinion of most writers. See further W. R. Smith's art. “ Ruth ” in Ency. Brit. 9th ed. (several portions of which have been retained by the present writer), revised and supplemented by T. K. Cheyne in Ency. Bib.; A. Bertholet, Kurzer Handkommentar (1898); W. Nowack, Handkommentar (1902); and (with special reference to traces of earlier mythological motives) H. Winckler, Altorient. Forschungen (iii. 66 sqq.). For the customs discussed above, see I. Benzinger, Ency. Bib. col. 2949 seq.; J. A. Bewer, Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1903), pp. 328 seq., 502 sqq. (with G. A. Barton's art. “ Ruth ” in Jew. Encyc.); and T. W. Juynboll, Theolog. Tijdschr. (1906), pp. 158 sqq. (W. R. S.; S. A. C.)
RUTHENIANS, a name applied to those of the Little Russians who are Austrian subjects. The name is a form of the word Russian. The Ruthenians were separated from the bulk of Russians by the accident of the two feudal principalities of the old Red Russia, Halič and Volhynia, having fallen to Lithuania, which in turn was united with Poland. At the partition of Poland no one troubled about ethnological boundaries. The language is in substance like the Little Russian of the Ukraine, though it has marked differences; the most interesting dialects are those in the extreme W., which approach to Slovak and that of the Huzuli in Bukovina. The Ruthenians number some three million in Galicia, Bukovina, and in the Carpathians along the edges of Hungary from the 21st meridian eastwards. Throughout Galicia the Poles form the aristocracy, though in two-thirds of it Ruthenians form the bulk of the population, while the middle class is Jewish or German. The Ruthenians are therefore under an alien yoke both politically and economically: in religion they mostly belong to the Uniate Church, acknowledging the Pope but retaining their Slavonic liturgy and most of the outward forms of the Greek Church. Their intellectual centre is Lemberg (Lviv or Lwów), where some lectures in the university are given in their language, and they are agitating for it to have equal rights with Polish. Yet here Little Russian is freer than in the Russian empire, and in Lemberg is the centre of its literature, the society called by the name of Ševčenko, the Little Russian poet. This society publishes voluminous transactions in a special orthography and deals with everything concerning Little Russia, its archaeology, people and language.
See summary of the work of the Ševčenko for ten years in Archiv f. slavische Phil. xxvii. (1905), p. 279.
RUTHENIUM [Symbol Ru atomic weight 101.7 (O=16)],
in chemistry, a metallic element, found associated with platinum,
in platinum ore and in osmiridium. The metal may be obtained
from the residues obtained in the separation of osmium from
osmiridium. These are washed with ammonium chloride until
the filtrate is colourless, ignited, fused with caustic potash and
nitre, the melt dissolved in water and nitric acid added to
the solution until the colour of potassium rut hen ate disappears.
A precipitate of ruthenium oxide gradually separates; this is
collected and ignited in a graphite crucible and finally fused in
the oxyhydrogen furnace (H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. J.
Debray, Ann. chim. phys., 1859, (3), 56, p. 406). For other
methods see C. E. Claus, Pogg. Ann., 1845, 65, p. 200; E.
Frémy, Comptes rendus, 1854, 38, p. 1008; T. Wilm, Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 1524. A purer ruthenium is obtained by A.
Gutbier and L. Trenkner (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 45, p. 166)
by heating the crude metal (obtained by other processes) in a
current of oxygen until all the osmium is volatilized as tetroxide.
The residue is then fused with caustic potash and nitre, dissolved.
in water, saturated with chlorine and distilled on the
water-bath in a current of chlorine. Pure ruthenium tetroxide
distils over. This is then dissolved in water, reduced by alcohol
and ignited in oxygen. Ruthenium in bulk resembles platinum
in its general appearance, and has been obtained crystalline
by heating an alloy of ruthenium and tin in a current of hydrochloric
acid gas. Its specific gravity (after fusion) is 12.063
(A. Joly, Comptes rendus, 1893, 116, p. 430). It fuses easily in
the electric arc. It oxidizes superficially when heated, but
fairly rapidly when ignited in an oxidizing blowpipe flame, forming
a black smoke of the oxide. It is also oxidized when fused
with caustic potash and nitre, forming a ruthenate. Acids
have practically no action on the metal, but it is soluble
in solutions of the alkaline hypochlorites. Like most of the
other metals of the group, it absorbs gases. A colloidal form
has been obtained by A. Gutbier and G. Hofmeier (Jour. prakt.
Chem., 1905, (2), 71, p. 452) by reducing ruthenium salts with
hydrazine hydrate in the presence of gum-arabic.
Several oxides of ruthenium, have been described, the definite existence of some of which appears to be doubtful. The dioxide, RuO2, is formed by heating sulphate, or by heating the metal in a current of oxygen. It crystallizes in octahedral isomorphous with stannic oxide. It is insoluble in acids and decomposes when heated to a sufficiently high temperature. Fusion with caustic potash converts it into a/mixture of potassium ruthenate and ruthenium sesquioxide, Ru2O3, which is a black, almost insoluble powder. An oxide of composition Ru4O9 is obtained as a black hydrated powder when the peroxide is heated with water for some time. It becomes anhydrous at about 360° C., and is unattached by acids and alkalis. The peroxide, RuO4, is formed when a solution of potassium ruthenate is decomposed by chlorine, or by oxidizing ruthenium compounds with potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid, or with potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. It forms a golden yellow crystalline mass, which sublimes slowly in vacuo, and melts at 25.5° C. It blackens on exposure to moisture, and decomposes when exposed to light. It is insoluble in water, but gradually decomposes, forming a hydrated oxide, Ru2O5·H2O. It is readily reduced. Its vapour possesses a characteristic smell, somewhat resembling that of ozone. Ruthenium dichloride, RuCl, is obtained (in solution) by reducing the sesquichloride by sulphuretted hydrogen or zinc. It is stable in the cold. The sesquichloride, Ru2Cl6, is formed when a mixture of chlorine and carbon monoxide is passed over finely divided ruthenium heated to 350° C. (Joly, Comptes rendus, 1892, 114, p. 291). It is a brown powder which is readily decomposed by boiling water. It absorbs ammonia readily, forming Ru2Cl4·7NH3. Numerous double chlorides are known, e.g. Ru2Cl6·4KCl; Ru2Cl6·4NH4Cl, &c. The pure tetrachloride, RuCl4, has not been isolated, but is chiefly known in the form of its double salts, such as potassium ruthenium chloride, K2RuCl6, which is obtained when finely divided ruthenium is fused with caustic potash and potassium chloride is gradually added to the fused mass (U. Antony and A. Luchesi, Gazz, 1899, 29, 11. p. 82). It is a red-brown crystalline powder, which is soluble in water. A similar ammonium salt has been obtained. Ruthenium sulphides are obtained when the metal is warmed with pyrites and some borax, and the fused mass treated with hydrochloric acid first in the cold and then hot. The insoluble residue contains a mixture of two sulphides, one of which is converted into the sulphate by nitric acid, whilst the other (a crystalline solid) is insoluble in acids. Ruthenium sulphate, Ru(SO4)2, as obtained by oxidizing the sulphide, is an orange-yellow mass which is deliquescent and dissolves in water, the solution possessing a strongly acid reaction. Rouge de Ruthene, Ru2(OH)2·Cl4·(NH4)7, is obtained from ammonia and ruthenium sesquichloride at 40° C., the product being purified by crystallization from ammonia.) It forms small brown lamellae which dissolve slowly in water to give a fuchsin-red solution possessing violet reflex. The solution possesses a considerable tinctorial power, dyeing silk in the cold. Potassium ruthenium cyanide, K4Ru(CN)6·3H2O, formed when potassium ruthenate is boiled with a solution of potassium cyanide, crystallizes in colourless plates which are soluble in water. A ruthenium silicide, RuSi, has been prepared by H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1903, 137, p. 229) by the
