that there is a continuous train of thought along this line from the Greeks to Darwin, but modern evolution began at the close of the 18th century and did not fairly take hold of the minds of people till after 1859. Linnæus (1707-78), by defining species and giving them names that were adopted all over the world, directed the attention of naturalists to species, and thus made possible a consideration of the origin of species. He considered them fixed and unchanging. His contemporary, Buffon, gradually grew to the idea that the higher forms of life were derived by modifications from the lower ones. These views were warmly supported by Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, and by the poet-naturalist Goethe. Lamarck, however, was the first fully to grasp the idea of evolution in its entirety. His book dealing with the subject (Philosophie Zoologique) was published in 1809, but his views were not accepted, largely on account of the opposition of Cuvier. They were shared by his friend Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and, after his death, a noteworthy public debate took place at Paris in 1830 between St. Hilaire and Cuvier on the question of organic evolution. Cuvier won by weight of authority and greater brilliancy. An important step in preparing the way for Darwin was taken by Charles Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830), in which he showed that, if we would know what occurred in the past, we must observe the agents that produce changes in the present and read the past in terms of the present. Herbert Spencer in 1852 published a remarkable article on evolution, that came near anticipating Darwin. Wallace and Darwin arrived at the same explanation independently, and in July, 1858, their views were published together. Next year Darwin published his Origin of Species. This had a compelling power, and at once attracted wide attention, partly because the time was ripe, but mainly because he had a better explanation to offer than any previous thinker. The story of the conflict of the general theory with prejudice and dogma, and its final acceptance by the scientific world, philosophers and theologians is part of the history of the past 50 years. Huxley in England and Haeckel in Germany were especially active in promoting the ideas of Darwin. What to read on the doctrine of evolution is an important question, but one should not begin with Darwin's Origin of Species, because that is voluntarily to place oneself 50 years in the past. It is better to begin with a recent statement of the theory and then go back to Darwin's books. The following books are among the best: Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin, Vol. I.; Wallace, Darwinism; Fiske, Destiny of Man; Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin; Darwin, Origin of Species and Animals and Plants under Domestication; Weismann, The Germ-Plasm; Romanes, An Examination of Weismannism.
Ewell (ū′ĕl), Richard Stoddert, a
Confederate general, was born at Georgetown,
GENERAL EWELL
D. C. in 1817,
served in Mexico
and against the
Apaches, and was
actively engaged
throughout the
Civil War. In
1862 he
distinguished himself
under Jackson, losing
a leg near Bull
Run in August;
and, having been
promoted to
lieutenant-general, he
served gallantly at Winchester,
Gettysburg and the Wilderness. At Sailor's
Creek, however, he was captured, with his
entire force, April 6, 1865. He died at
Springfield, Tenn., Jan. 25, 1872.
Ewing (ū′ing), Thomas, an American statesman, was born in Virginia in 1789. He fitted himself for college by night-study while at work in the Kanawha salt-works. He graduated at Ohio University at Athens, O., receiving the first degree of A. B. ever given in that state. He was admitted to the bar in 1816, and was soon known as one of the first lawyers in Ohio. He was United States senator from 1831 to 1837, secretary of the treasury in 1841, and in 1849 he organized the newly-created department of the interior, returning afterward for a time to the senate. He was strongly opposed to slavery, voting against the fugitive-slave law and for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. He introduced many improvements in the postal service. He died at Lancaster, O., on Oct. 26, 1871.
Excal′ibur, the sword of King Arthur, according to the legends, was given to the king by the Lady of the Lake, to whom it was to be restored at his death. Tennyson weaves a beautiful legend of how Sir Bedivere, being ordered by Arthur to cast the brand into the mere, twice hides the gleaming weapon before the reproaches of the king induce him to obey. A white hand caught the flying sword and drew it beneath the surface of the lake. See The Passing of Arthur.
Excursions, School. Out-door excursions with school-children for purposes of education have in recent years become a well-recognised mode of enlarging their ideas and range of experience. The main purposes of such excursions are to bring children in contact with the great outside world by direct experience and observation; and to give more reality to study;
