liable to happen on clear nights, as the clouds act as a screen to check radiation. Smoke acts in the same way as clouds, so that frost is more common in country districts than in towns. A well-known form of frost is the frost-work or ice-crystals seen when the moisture in the air of a warm room condenses on the glass of the window, the glass being below freezing point. Black frost is the effect produced when the moisture within a plant is frozen, but without any hoar frost being formed on the outside.
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| JAMES A. FROUDE |
Froude (fro͞od), James Anthony, an English historian, was born at Dartington, Devonshire, April 23, 1818. His early literary work appeared largely as contributions to magazines; but in 1856 appeared the first volumes of his History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Later on he published four volumes of brilliant essays entitled Short Studies on Great Subjects. Among more recent works are a sketch of Julius Cæsar and Oceana, the latter an account of a voyage to Australia and some of the Pacific islands. In 1873-74 appeared The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century. Froude was for some years rector of St. Andrew's University and editor of Fraser's Magazine. In 1892 he was appointed regius professor of history at Oxford. Froude had fine literary ability, and in the art of making history as fascinating as fiction Macaulay is his only rival; but he lacked the critical fairness and accuracy of modern historians, a fault which greatly impairs the permanent value of his works. He died on Oct. 20, 1894.
Fruit. When seeds are formed, contiguous parts become more or less modified, and the resulting structure is called a fruit. The parts involved in a fruit vary widely in different plants. Sometimes only the ovary is involved, as in the bean-pod; sometimes the cup-like part of the flower which bears the floral leaves is included, as in the apple; sometimes the very much enlarged receptacle is included, as in the strawberry; while in the pineapple the fruit is the whole flower-cluster, with its axis, bracts, flowers and all. Fruits may be roughly classified in two groups: (1) those which ripen dry and (2) those which ripen fleshy. The dry fruits are further divided into those which dehisce, that is, open in some way to discharge the seeds, and those which do not dehisce, the fruit being carried away with the seed. Among dry fruits which do not dehisce are the akene (sometimes spelled achene), in which a single seed is so closely invested by the ovary as to make a seed-like fruit, as in the sunflower, dandelion, strawberry pits etc.; and the characteristic grain of wheat, corn and other cereals. Among dry fruits which dehisce, called in general pods, are the follicle, a single ripened carpel which splits down one side, as in the peony; the legume (generally called pod), a single ripened carpel which splits into two parts (valves), as in the pea and bean; the capsule, a ripened pistil of several carpels which opens in various ways, as in the hollyhock and violet; the silique, the peculiar pod of the mustard family, with a false partition; the silicle, a short silique; the pyxis, a capsule which opens by a lid, as in the twin-leaf (Jeffersonia). The fleshy fruits do not dehisce, and among them are the berry which is pulpy throughout and with a thin rind, as the grape, currant, tomato etc.; the drupe or stone fruit, in which the ovary wall develops an outer fleshy part and an inner bony part (stone), the seed being the kernel, as the peach, cherry, plum etc.; the drupelet, a small drupe, as the grains of the blackberry, raspberry etc.; the pome, in which certain flower-parts outside the ovary; form the flesh, as the apple, pear etc., the ripened ovary being the core.
VARIOUS FORMS OF DRY, DEHISCENT FRUIT
Fry, Elizabeth, was born on May 21, 1780, near Norfolk, the daughter of John Gurney, a banker. She had no deep religious opinions until, at 18, a sermon she heard in the Friends' meeting-house turned her thoughts in that direction. She began working among the poor, and founded a school for poor children, which she managed entirely herself, even when the number of scholars increased to more than 70. She married, and later became a preacher among the Friends. In 1813 she first saw the miserable condition of the 300 women,
