their action. The payment for the opium being made in silver there was a constant and increasing drain upon the country's resources. The position was not so bad as it actually appeared, because as a set-off to the opium traffic there had grown up with it a trade in tea of almost equal value. But political economy was and is not a strong point with the Chinese Mandarins, and they regarded the money paid out at Canton for opium and European goods as a dead loss to the Empire. The Government strove furiously to repress a commerce which touched them on such a very tender point. "Terrible laws and decrees," says a well-known writer, "were fulminated by the Imperial Court against all smokers, senders or purchasers of opium. They were to be beaten with a hundred strokes of the bamboo, to stand in the pillory, and to receive other punishments. But the very persons charged with the execution of these laws were themselves the most habitual and inveterate infringers of them, and nearly every man on the sea coast was a smuggler of opium." An Imperial State paper gives the official view of the state of affairs at this period in some interesting sentences. "It seems," said the Emperor, "that opium is almost entirely imported from abroad: worthless subordinates in offices, and nefarious traders first introduced the abuse: young persons of family, wealthy citizens, and merchants adopted the custom, until at last it reached the common people. I have learnt on inquiry, from scholars and official persons, that opium smokers exist in all the provinces, but the larger proportion of these are to be found in the Government offices: and that it would be a fallacy to suppose that there are not smokers among all ranks of civil and military officers, below the station of provincial governors and their deputies. The magistrates of districts issue proclamations interdicting the clandestine sale of opium, at the same time that their kindred and clerks and servants smoke it as before. Then the nefarious traders make a pretext of interdict for raising the price. The police, influenced by the people in the public offices, become the secret purchasers of opium, instead of labouring for its suppression; and thus all interdicts and regulations become vain." It is a striking picture that is thus drawn with the imperial pen. But as the writer already quoted points out the denunciation might have been made far more general. "The highest mandarin or prince of the blood smoked his opium pipe, and so did the poorest peasant, when he could get it. At Canton and all the frequented seaport towns there were public houses exclusively devoted to opium smoking. At Peking, in the very palace, the ladies of the imperial harem and their emasculated attendants smoked opium, and would not be without it; and if the Emperor himself had wholly foregone the practice, which is problematical, he had notoriously been an opium smoker."
The throwing open of the China trade had a marked effect in aggravating the controversy which arose over the opium trade. Not only was an impetus given to the importation of the drug, but a sense of irresponsibility in regard to many phases of the commerce was developed which tended to increase the official irritation. An almost endless series of "incidents" occurred of greater or less importance. Captain Elliot, R.N., who had attained to the position of Chief Superintendent of British trade, did his utmost to conciliate the Chinese. By his exertions the trade was practically driven out of the Canton River and the smuggling of the drug was made a difficult and precarious business. The Chinese, however, were not to be placated by any measures, however energetic or well intentioned. Their objection was not so much to the opium trade as to all foreign trade, and they apparently had come to the conclusion at the time that they would exclude it. Towards this end they unceasingly strove. No overt steps, however, were taken by the Chinese authorities until December 12, 1838, when preparations were made for strangling a native opium dealer in front of the British factory. An emphatic protest was made against this outrage by Captain Elliot, and when the deed had been perpetrated all the foreign flags were struck as a mark of the indignation felt at so extraordinary a proceeding. It was soon made abundantly clear that the authorities were in earnest in their determination to push the opium dispute to extreme lengths. Early in March, 1839, there suddenly descended upon Canton a high imperial official charged with extraordinary powers for the suppression of the opium trade. This functionary, whose name—Lin—was subsequently to become a household word in England, announced himself by a proclamation dated the 18th of March, as a specially appointed Imperial Commissioner with "great irresponsible authority," and as being "sworn to stand or fall by the opium question." On the previous day the hong merchants had received an edict commanding them to inquire into the state of the opium trade. The manifesto declared that the utter annihilation of it was his first object and that, therefore, "he had given commands to the foreigners to deliver up to Government all the myriad chests of opium which they had in their vessels." The merchants were called upon to subscribe to a bond in the Chinese and foreign language jointly declaring that thenceforth "they would never venture to bring opium, and that if any should again be brought, on discovery thereof, the parties concerned should immediately suffer execution of the laws and the property be confiscated to Government." These bonds, it was intimated, were to be obtained by the hong merchants and the same reported to the High Commissioner within three days on penalty of death. On the 19th of March the Hoppo issued an order to the merchants directing them to notify the foreigners that pending the High Commissioner's investigations they were not at liberty to proceed down the river to Macao; in other words, that they were prisoners in the factories. With a view to making the order effective, a strong land and water guard was posted at the factories, furnished with instructions to allow of no egress from them. Captain Elliot, R.N., who was at Macao at the time, took a very serious view of this action on the part of the Chinese Government. He issued a proclamation, dated the 22nd of March, to the following effect:—
"The Chief Superintendent of the trade of British subjects in Canton having received information that Her Majesty's subjects are detained against their will in Canton, and having other urgent reasons for the withdrawal of all confidence in the just and moderate pretensions of the Provincial Government, has now to require that all the ships of Her Majesty's subjects at the outer anchorages should proceed forthwith to Hong Kong and hoisting their national colours be prepared to resist any act of aggression on the part of the Chinese Government." The next day he issued another proclamation in which, after referring to the Chinese war preparations and "the threatening language of the High Commissioner and provincial authorities of the most general application and dark and violent character," he intimated that he should forthwith demand passports for all such of Her Majesty's subjects as might think fit to proceed outside within the space of ten days. He counselled all Her Majesty's subjects to make immediate preparations for moving their property on board the ships Reliance, Orwell, and George the Fourth, or other British vessels at Whampoa. Captain Elliot followed up his second proclamation by proceeding to Canton in person with a view, in his own words, "to put an end to the state of difficulty and anxiety then existent by the faithful fulfilment of the Emperor's will." On arrival he respectfully asked that the rest of the foreign community might be set at liberty in order that he might calmly consider and suggest adequate remedies for the great evils so justly denounced by His Imperial Majesty. He was answered by a close imprisonment of more than seven weeks, with armed men by day and night before his gates, under threats of privation of food, water, and life. "Was this," he asked in one of his remonstrances, "becoming treatment to the officer of a friendly nation recognised by the Emperor, and who had always performed his duty peaceably and irreproachably, striving in all things to afford satisfaction to the Provincial Government?"
Lin was not in the least moved by Captain Elliot's earnest representations. If anything, he put the screw on tighter when he found that his decrees were disregarded. At length he caused not obscure threats to be conveyed to the imprisoned merchants that if they did not yield obedience to his orders he would cause them to be put to death. Captain Elliot now realised that if a catastrophe was to be prevented the Commissioner's demands must be conceded. He therefore demanded of the British merchants in the name of the King that they should hand all the opium in their possession over to the Imperial Commissioner. The opium was at Hongkong, Lintin, and other places beyond the port limits, and yet twenty thousand chests were freely surrendered. Notwithstanding this extensive acquiescence in the official demands, Lin was not satisfied. His calculation was that the importation should amount to 20,283 chests, so that Captain Elliot, in order to meet him, had to make up the balance by purchases, paying with bills drawn on the British Government. The operation of collecting the opium took several weeks, and in the meantime Lin had been in communication with Peking as to the disposal of his capture. Orders were finally received from the Emperor to this effect: "Lin and his colleagues are to assemble the civil and military officers and destroy the opium before their eyes, thus manifesting to the natives dwelling on the sea coast and the foreigners of the outside nations an awful warning. Respect this. Obey respectfully." The opium was destroyed at the rate of three hundred chests a day in an enclosure near the temporary residence of the Imperial Commissioner. In the enclosure were three vats of about 75 by 150 feet, each opening by sluices into the river. The chests of opium, after being re-weighed and broken up in the presence of high officers, were brought down to the vats, and the contents were crushed ball by ball upon platforms and then pushed by the coolies with their feet into the receptacles beneath. When the process was completed the sluices were opened and the muddy compound was emptied into the river. "Every precaution," says a writer who witnessed
