The Influence of Sea Power upon History

by Alfred Thayer Mahan

Chapter I: Discussion of the Elements of Sea Power.

• History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military
• Permanence of the teachings of history
• Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion
• Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships
• Essential distinction between weather and lee gage
• Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions
• Consequent effect upon naval policy
• Lessons of history apply especially to strategy
• Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable
• Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly
• Wide scope of naval strategy

Chapter II: State of Europe in 1660. Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667. Sea Battles of Lowestoft and of the Four Days.

• The sea a great common
• Advantages of water-carriage over that by land
• Navies exist for the protection of commerce
• Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports
• Development of colonies and colonial posts
• Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies
• General conditions affecting Sea Power:
  • I. Geographical position
  • II. Physical conformation
  • III. Extent of territory
  • IV. Number of population
  • V. National character
  • VI. Character and policy of governments
    • England
    • Holland
    • France
• Influence of colonies on Sea Power
• The United States:
  • Its weakness in Sea Power
  • Its chief interest in internal development
  • Danger from blockades
  • Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest
• Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power
• Purpose of the historical narrative

Chapter III: War of England and France in Alliance Against the United Provinces, 1672-1674.--Finally, of France Against Combined Europe, 1674-1678.--Sea Battles of Solebay, the Texel, and Stromboli.

• Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV
• Followed shortly by general wars
• French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu
• Condition of France in 1660
• Condition of Spain
• Condition of the Dutch United Provinces
• Their commerce and colonies
• Character of their government
• Parties in the State
• Condition of England in 1660
• Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships
• Conditions of other European States
• Louis XIV. The leading personality in Europe
• His policy
• Colbert's administrative acts
• Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665
• Battle of Lowestoft, 1665
• Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers
• The group formation
• The order of battle for sailing-ships
• The Four Days' Battle, 1666
• Military merits of the opposing fleets
• Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion
• Ruyter in the Thames, 1667
• Peace of Breda, 1667
• Military value of commerce-destroying

Chapter IV: English Revolution. War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697. Sea Battles of Beachy Head and La Hougue.

• Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands
• Policy of the United Provinces
• Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden
• Anger of Louis XIV
• Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt
• His memorial
• Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II.
• The two kings declare war against the United Provinces
• Military character of this war
• Naval strategy of the Dutch
• Tactical combinations of De Ruyter
• Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration
• Battle of Solebay, 1672
• Tactical comments
• Effect of the battle on the course of the war
• Land campaign of the French in Holland
• Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland
• Accession to power of William of Orange
• Uneasiness among European States
• Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673
• Naval battle of the Texel, 1673
• Effect upon the general war
• Equivocal action of the French fleet
• General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions
• Military character of De Ruyter
• Coalition against France
• Peace between England and the United Provinces
• Sicilian revolt against Spain
• Battle of Stromboli, 1676
• Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics
• De Ruyter killed off Agosta
• England becomes hostile to France
• Sufferings of the United Provinces
• Peace of Nimeguen, 1678
• Effects of the war on France and Holland
• Notice of Comte D'Estrees

Chapter V: War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713. Sea Battle of Malaga.

• Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria
• King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou
• Death of the King of Spain
• Louis XIV. accepts the bequests
• He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands
• Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria
• Declarations of war
• The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain
• Affair of the Vigo galleons
• Portugal joins the allies
• Character of the naval warfare
• Capture of Gibraltar by the English
• Naval battle of Malaga, 1704
• Decay of the French navy
• Progress of the land war
• Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca
• Disgrace of Marlborough
• England offers terms of peace
• Peace of Utrecht, 1713
• Terms of the peace
• Results of the war to the different belligerents
• Commanding position of Great Britain
• Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength
• Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power
• Depressed condition of France
• Commercial prosperity of England
• Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying
• Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711
• War between Russia and Sweden

Chapter VI: The Regency in France. Alberoni in Spain. Policies of Walpole and Fleuri. War of the Polish Succession. English Contraband Trade in Spanish America. Great Britain Declares War Against Spain, 1715-1739.

• Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV
• Accession of George I
• Regency of Philip of Orleans
• Administration of Alberoni in Spain
• Spaniards invade Sardinia
• Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France
• Spaniards invade Sicily
• Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718
• Failure and dismissal of Alberoni
• Spain accepts terms
• Great Britain interferes in the Baltic
• Death of Philip of Orleans
• Administration of Fleuri in France
• Growth of French commerce
• France in the East Indies
• Troubles between England and Spain
• English contraband trade in Spanish America
• Illegal search of English ships
• Walpole's struggles to preserve peace
• War of the Polish Succession
• Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies
• Bourbon family compact
• France acquires Bar and Lorraine
• England declares war against Spain
• Morality of the English action toward Spain
• Decay of the French navy
• Death of Walpole and of Fleuri

Chapter VII: War Between Great Britain and Spain, 1739. War of the Austrian Succession, 1740. France Joins Spain Against Great Britain, 1744. Sea Battles of Matthews, Anson, and Hawke. Peace of Aix-La-Chapelle, 1748.

• Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783
• Neglect of the navy by French government
• Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards
• Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India
• Condition of the contending navies
• Expeditions of Vernon and Anson
• Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession
• England allies herself to Austria
• Naval affairs in the Mediterranean
• Influence of Sea Power on the war
• Naval battle off Toulon, 1744
• Causes of English failure
• Courts-martial following the action
• Inefficient action of English navy
• Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745
• Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power
• France overruns Belgium and invades Holland
• Naval actions of Anson and Hawke
• Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Etenduere
• Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies
• Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs
• La Bourdonnais reduces Madras
• Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748
• Madras exchanged for Louisburg
• Results of the war
• Effect of Sea Power on the issue

Chapter VIII: Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. England's Overwhelming Power and Conquests on the Seas, in North America, Europe, and East and West Indies. Sea Battles: Byng off Minorca; Hawke and Conflans; Pocock and D'Ache in East Indies.

• Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled
• Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy
• He is recalled from India
• His policy abandoned by the French
• Agitation in North America
• Braddock's expedition, 1755
• Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace
• French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756
• Byng sails to relieve the place
• Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756
• Characteristics of the French naval policy
• Byng returns to Gibraltar
• He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot
• Formal declarations of war by England and France
• England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war
• France is drawn into a continental struggle
• The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins
• Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England
• Operations in North America
• Fall of Louisburg, 1758
• Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760
• Influence of Sea Power on the continental war
• English plans for the general naval operations
• Choiseul becomes Minister in France
• He plans an invasion of England
• Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759
• Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen
• Consequent frustration of the invasion of England
• Project to invade Scotland
• Sailing of the Brest fleet
• Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759
• Accession of Charles III. To Spanish throne
• Death of George II
• Clive in India
• Battle of Plassey, 1757
• Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India
• Naval actions between Pocock and D'Ache', 1758, 1759
• Destitute condition of French naval stations in India
• The French fleet abandons the struggle
• Final fall of the French power in India
• Ruined condition of the French navy
• Alliance between France and Spain
• England declares war against Spain
• Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies
• French and Spaniards invade Portugal
• The invasion repelled by England
• Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters
• Spain sues for peace
• Losses of British mercantile shipping
• Increase of British commerce
• Commanding position of Great Britain
• Relations of England and Portugal
• Terms of the Treaty of Paris
• Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain
• Results of the maritime war
• Results of the continental war
• Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable
• Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus
• Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain
• Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain
• British success due to maritime superiority
• Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets

Chapter IX: Course of Events from the Peace of Paris to 1778. Maritime War Consequent upon the American Revolution. Battle off Ushant.

• French discontent with the Treaty of Paris
• Revival of the French navy
• Discipline among French naval officers of the time
• Choiseul's foreign policy
• Domestic troubles in Great Britain
• Controversies with the North American colonies
• Genoa cedes Corsica to France
• Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands
• Choiseul dismissed
• Death of Louis XV
• Naval policy of Louis XVI
• Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778
• Instructions of Louis XVI. To the French admirals
• Strength of English navy
• Characteristics of the military situation in America
• The line of the Hudson
• Burgoyne's expedition from Canada
• Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake
• Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777
• American privateering
• Clandestine support of the Americans by France
• Treaty between France and the Americans
• Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans
• The military situation in the different quarters of the globe
• Breach between France and England
• Sailing of the British and French fleets
• Battle of Ushant, 1778
• Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle

Chapter X: Maritime War in North America and West Indies, 1778-1781. Its Influence upon the Course of the American Revolution. Fleet Actions off Grenada, Dominica, and Chesapeake Bay.

• D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778
• British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
• Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements
• D'Estaing arrives too late
• Follows Howe to New York
• Fails to attack there and sails for Newport
• Howe follows him there
• Both fleets dispersed by a storm
• D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston
• Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points
• D'Estaing sails for the West Indies
• The English seize Sta. Lucia
• Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them
• D'Estaing captures Grenada
• Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled
• D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages
• Reasons for his neglect
• French naval policy
• English operations in the Southern States
• D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah
• His fruitless assault on Savannah
• D'Estaing returns to France
• Fall of Charleston
• De Guichen takes command in the West Indies
• Rodney arrives to command English fleet
• His military character
• First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780
• Breaking the line
• Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen
• Rodney divides his fleet
• Goes in person to New York
• De Guichen returns to France
• Arrival of French forces in Newport
• Rodney returns to the West Indies
• War between England and Holland
• Disasters to the United States in 1780
• De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781
• Engagement with English fleet off Martinique.
• Cornwallis overruns the Southern States
• He retires upon Wilmington, N. C., and thence to Virginia
• Arnold on the James River
• The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold
• Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781
• French fleet returns to Newport
• Cornwallis occupies Yorktown
• De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake
• Action with the British fleet, 1781
• Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781
• Criticism of the British naval operations
• Energy and address shown by De Grasse
• Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778.
• The military policy best fitted to cope with them
• Position of the French squadron in Newport, R. I., 1780.
• Great Britain's defensive position and inferior numbers.
• Consequent necessity for a vigorous initiative
• Washington's opinions as to the influence of Sea Power on the American contest

Chapter XI: Maritime War in Europe, 1779-1782.

• Objectives of the allied operations in Europe
• Spain declares war against England
• Allied fleets enter the English Channel, 1779
• Abortive issue of the cruise
• Rodney sails with supplies for Gibraltar
• Defeats the Spanish squadron of Langara and relieves the place
• The allies capture a great British convoy
• The armed neutrality of the Baltic powers, 1780
• England declares war against Holland
• Gibraltar is revictualled by Admiral Derby
• The allied fleets again in the Channel, 1781
• They retire without effecting any damage to England
• Destruction of a French convoy for the West Indies
• Fall of Port Mahon, 1782
• The allied fleets assemble at Algesiras
• Grand attack of the allies on Gibraltar, which fails, 1782
• Lord Howe succeeds in revictualling Gibraltar
• Action between his fleet and that of the allies
• Conduct of the war of 1778 by the English government
• Influence of Sea Power
• Proper use of the naval force

Chapter XII: Events in the East Indies, 1778-1781. Suffren Sails from Brest for India, 1781. His Brilliant Naval Campaign in the Indian Seas, 1782, 1783.

• Neglect of India by the French government
• England at war with Mysore and with the Mahrattas
• Arrival of the French squadron under Comte d'Orves
• It effects nothing and returns to the Isle of France
• Suffren sails from Brest with five ships-of-the-line, 1781
• Attacks an English squadron in the Cape Verde Islands, 1781
• Conduct and results of this attack
• Distinguishing merits of Suffren as a naval leader
• Suffren saves the Cape Colony from the English
• He reaches the Isle of France
• Succeeds to the chief command of the French fleet
• Meets the British squadron under Hughes at Madras
• Analysis of the naval strategic situation in India
• The first battle between Suffren and Hughes, Feb. 17, 1782
• Suffren's views of the naval situation in India
• Tactical oversights made by Suffren
• Inadequate support received by him from his captains
• Suffren goes to Pondicherry, Hughes to Trincomalee
• The second battle between Suffren and Hughes, April 12, 1782
• Suffren's tactics in the action
• Relative injuries received by the opposing fleets
• Contemporaneous English criticisms upon Hughes's conduct
• Destitute condition of Suffren's fleet
• His activity and success in supplying wants
• He communicates with Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore
• Firmness and insight shown by Suffren
• His refusal to obey orders from home to leave the Indian Coast
• The third battle between Suffren and Hughes, July 6, 1782
• Qualities shown by Hughes
• Stubborn fighting by the British admiral and captains
• Suffren deprives three captains of their commands
• Dilatory conduct of Admiral Hughes
• Suffren attacks and takes Trincomalee
• Strategic importance of this success
• Comparative condition of the two fleets in material for repairs
• The English government despatches powerful reinforcements
• The French court fails to support Suffren
• The fourth battle between Suffren and Hughes, Sept. 3, 1782
• Mismanagement and injuries of the French
• Contrast between the captains in the opposing fleets
• Two ships of Suffren's fleet grounded and lost
• Arrival of British reinforcements under Admiral Bickerton
• Approach of bad-weather season; Hughes goes to Bombay
• Military situation of French and English in India
• Delays of the French reinforcements under Bussy
• Suffren takes his fleet to Achem, in Sumatra
• He returns to the Indian coast
• Arrival of Bussy
• Decline of the French power on shore
• The English besiege Bussy in Cuddalore by land and sea
• Suffren relieves the place
• The fifth battle between Suffren and Hughes, June 20, 1783
• Decisive character of Suffren's action
• News of the peace received at Madras
• Suffren sails for France
• His flattering reception everywhere
• His distinguishing military qualities
• His later career and death

Chapter XIII: Events in the West Indies after the Surrender of Yorktown. Encounters of De Grasse with Hood. The Sea Battle of the Saints. 1781-1782.

• Maritime struggle transferred from the continent to West Indies
• De Grasse sails for the islands
• French expedition against the island of St. Christopher, January, 1782
• Hood attempts to relieve the garrison
• Manoeuvres of the two fleets
• Action between De Grasse and Hood
• Hood seizes the anchorage left by De Grasse
• De Grasse attacks Hood at his anchorage
• Hood maintains his position
• Surrender of the garrison and island
• Merits of Hood's action
• Criticism upon De Grasse's conduct
• Rodney arrives in West Indies from England
• Junction of Rodney and Hood at Antigua
• De Grasse returns to Martinique
• Allied plans to capture Jamaica
• Rodney takes his station at Sta. Lucia
• The French fleet sails and is pursued by Rodney
• Action of April 9, 1782
• Criticism upon the action
• The chase continued; accidents to French ships
• The naval battle of the Saints, April 12, 1782
• Rodney breaks the French line
• Capture of the French commander-in-chief and five ships-of-the-line
• Details of the action
• Analysis of the effects of Rodney's manoeuvre
• Tactical bearing of improvements in naval equipment
• Lessons of this short naval campaign
• Rodney's failure to pursue the French fleet
• Examination of his reasons and of the actual conditions
• Probable effect of this failure upon the conditions of peace
• Rodney's opinions upon the battle of April 12
• Successes achieved by Rodney during his command
• He is recalled by a new ministry
• Exaggerated view of the effects of this battle upon the war
• Subsequent career of De Grasse
• Court-martial ordered upon the officers of the French fleet
• Findings of the court
• De Grasse appeals against the finding
• He is severely rebuked by the king
• Deaths of De Grasse, Rodney, and Hood

Chapter XIV: Critical Discussion of the Maritime War of 1778.

• The war of 1778 purely maritime
• Peculiar interest therefore attaching to it
• Successive steps in the critical study of a war
• Distinction between "object" and "objective"
• Parties to the war of 1778
• Objects of the different belligerents
• Foundations of the British Empire of the seas
• Threatened by the revolt of the colonies
• The British fleet inferior in numbers to the allies
• Choice of objectives
• The fleets indicated as the keys of the situation everywhere
• Elements essential to an active naval war
• The bases of operations in the war of 1778
  • In Europe
  • On the American continent
  • In the West Indies
  • In the East Indies
• Strategic bearing of the trade-winds and monsoons
• The bases abroad generally deficient in resources
• Consequent increased importance of the communications
• The navies the guardians of the communications
• Need of intermediate ports between Europe and India
• Inquiry into the disposition of the naval forces
• Difficulty of obtaining information at sea
• Perplexity as to the destination of a naval expedition
• Disadvantages of the defensive
• England upon the defensive in 1778
• Consequent necessity for wise and vigorous action
• The key of the situation
• British naval policy in the Napoleonic wars
• British naval policy in the Seven Years' War
• Difficulties attending this policy
• Disposition of the British navy in the war of 1778
• Resulting inferiority on many critical occasions
• Effect oil the navy of the failure to fortify naval bases
• The distribution of the British navy exposes it to being out-numbered at many points
• The British naval policy in 1778 and in other wars compared
• Naval policy of the allies
• Dives-gent counsels of the coalition
• "Ulterior objects"
• The allied navies systematically assume a defensive attitude
• Dangers of this line of action
• Glamour of commerce-destroying
• The conditions of peace, 1783