The Origins of the Islamic State/2

←Part I. Arabia

The Origins of the Islamic State by Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyá al-Balādhurī, translated by Philip Khuri Hitti Part II. Syria

Part III. Mesopotamia→

Chapter I. The Conquest of Syria

The " tying of the three banners." When abu-Bakr was done with the case of those who apostatized, he saw fit to direct his troops against Syria. To this effect he wrote to the people of Makkah, at-Ta'if, al-Yaman, and all the Arabs in Najd and al-Hijaz calling them for a " holy war " and arousing their desire in it and in the obtainable booty from the Greeks. Accordingly, people, including those actuated by greed as well as those actuated by the hope of divine remuneration, hastened to abu-Bakr from all quarters, and flocked to al-Madinah. Abu-Bakr gave three banners to three men [appointed them commanders] namely: Khalid ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah, Shurahbil ibn- Hasanah, an ally of the banu-Jumah and 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Wa'il as-Sahmi. (Shurahbil, according to al-Wakidi, was the son of 'Abdallah ibn-al-Muta' al-Kindi, Hasanah being his mother and a freedmaid of Ma'mar ibn-Habib ibn-Wahb ibn-Hudhafah ibn-Jumah. But according to al-Kalbi, Shurahbil was the son of Rabi'ah ibn-al-Muta' descended from Sufah, i. e., al-Ghauth ibn-Murr ibn-Udd ibn-Tabikhah.) The tying of these banners took place on 108 Thursday the first of Safar, year 13, after the troops had camped at al-Jurf throughout the month of Muharram with abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah leading their prayers. Abu-Bakr wanted to give a banner to abu-'Ubaidah ; but the latter begged to be relieved. Others claim that he did give one to him, but that report is not confirmed. The fact is that when 'Umar became caliph, he conferred on him the governorship of all Syria.

Abu-Ubaidah commander-in-chief. Abu-Mikhnaf states that 'Umar said to the commanders, "If ye altogether are to lead a fight, your commander will be abu-'Ubaidah 'Amir ibn-'Abdallah ibn-al-Jarrah al-Fihri, otherwise Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan." Others assert that 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi acted only as a 'reinforcement for the Moslems and commanded only those who joined him.

Abu-Bakr replaces Khalid by Arwa. The assignment of Khalid ibn-Sa'id by abu-Bakr to the leadership displeased 'Umar who approached abu-Bakr with a view to dismissing him, charging him with being " a vain-seeking man who tries to make his way through dispute and bigotry." Accordingly abu-Bakr dismissed Khalid and directed abu- Arwa ad-Dausi to take the banner from his hand. Abu-Arwa met him at dhu-1-Marwah where he received the banner from him and carried it back to abu-Bakr. Abu-Bakr handed it to Yazid ibn-abi-Suf yan who left, with his brother Mu'awiyah carrying the banner before him. Others say that the banner was delivered to Yazid at dhu-1-Marwah whence he started at the head of Khalid's army. Khalid went with the army of Shurahbil for the divine remuneration.

Abu-Bakr gives instructions to the commanders. Abu-Bakr instructed 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi to follow the way of Allah with Palestine for objective. Yazid he instructed to follow the way of Tabuk. To Shurahbil, he wrote to follow the way of Tabuk, too. At the outset each one of the commanders had three thousand men under his leadership, but abu-Bakr kept on sending reinforcements until each one had 7,500. Later the total was increased to 24,000.

It is reported on the authority of al-Wakidi that abu-Bakr assigned 'Amr to Palestine, Shurahbil to the Jordan, and Yazid to Damascus saying, " When ye all fight together, your commander is the one in whose province ye are fighting." It is also reported that to 'Amr he gave oral instructions to lead the prayers in case the armies are united, and to have each commander lead the prayer of his own army when the armies are separate. Abu-Bakr ordered the commanders to see that each tribe flies a banner of its own.

Abu-Bakr directs Khalid ibn-al-Walid to Syria. On his arrival in the first district of Palestine, 'Amr ibn-al-'Asi sent a message to abu-Bakr informing him of the great number of the enemy, their great armament, the wide extent of their land and the enthusiasm of their troops. Abu- Bakr, thereupon, wrote to Khalid ibn-al-Walid ibn-al-Mughirah-1-Makhzumi who was at that time in al-'Irak directing him to go to Syria. According to some, he thereby made him a commander over the commanders in the war. According to others, Khalid only commanded his men who accompanied him; but whenever the Moslems met for a battle, the commanders would choose him as their chief for his valor and strategy and the auspiciousness of his counsel.

The battle of Ddthin. The first conflict between the Moslems and the enemy took place in Dathin, one of the villages of Ghazzah, which lay on the way between the Moslems and the residence of the patrician of Ghazzah. Here the battle raged furiously, but at last Allah gave victory to his friends and defeat to his enemies whom he dispersed. All this took place before the arrival of Khalid ibn-al-Walid in Syria.

The battle of al-Ardbah. Thence Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan went in quest of the partrician, but hearing that a large host of Greeks were gathered in al-'Arabah, which lay in Palestine, he directed against them abu-Umamah as-Sudai ibn-'Ajlan al-Bahili, who, falling upon them, put most of them to the sword and went his way. Regarding this battle of al-'Arabah, abu-Mikhnaf reports that six of the Greek leaders at the head of 3,000 men camped at al- 'Arabah when abu-Umamah with a body of Moslems ad- vanced against them and defeated them, killing one of their leaders. Thence he pursued them to ad-Dubbiyah (i. e. ad-Dabiyah) where he inflicted another defeat on them, and the Moslems carried off a large booty.

According to a tradition communicated by abu-Haf s ash- Shami on the authority of certain sheikhs from Syria, the first conflict of the Moslems was the Battle of al-'Arabah before which no fighting at all took place since they left al-Hijaz. In no place between al-Hijaz and al-'Arabah did they pass without establishing their authority and taking possession of it without resistance.

Chapter II. The Advance of Khalid ibn-al-Walid on Syria and the Places he Reduced on his Way

Khalid takes 'Am at-Tamr and Sandaudd' by force. When Khalid ibn-al-Walid received abu-Bakr's letter at al-Hirah, he left in his place al-Muthanna ibn-Harithah ash-Shaibani over the district of al-Kufah, and set out at the head of 800 men in Rabi' II, year 13. (Some give 600 and others 500 as the number of men.) On his way, he passed through 'Ain at-Tamr and reduced it by force. (According to others, he received abu-Bakr's message in 'Ain at-Tamr after having subdued it.) From 'Ain at-Tamr Khalid made his way to Sandauda' in which lived some of the Kindah and lyad tribes and non-Arabs. These people fought against him ; but Khalid won the victory and left in the city Sa'd ibn-'Amr ibn-Haram al-Ansari whose descendants still live in it. Khalid, having learnt that a body of the banu-Taghlib ibn-Wa'il at al-Mudaiyah and al-Husaid had apostatized and were led by Rabi'ah ibn-Bujair, made his way to them. They fought against him; but he put them to flight and took captives and booty. The captives he sent to abu-Bakr, and among them was umm-Habib as-Sahba', daughter of Habib ibn-Bujair, and [later] the mother of 'Umar ibn-'Ali ibn-abi-Talib.

Khalid crosses the desert to Suwa. Then Khalid made an incursion on Kurakir which was a spring belonging to the Kalb tribe, and thence crossed the desert to Suwa which was also a spring held conjointly by the Kalb and some men of the Bahra'. Here Khalid killed Hurkus ibn-an-Nu'man al-Bahrani of the Kuda'ah tribe and swept off all their possessions. When Khalid wanted to cross the desert, he gave the camels all the water they could drink and then thrust into the camels' lips spears, which he left for them to drag, lest they should ruminate and get thirsty again. The quantity of water he carried along, though big, was exhausted on the way. So Khalid had to slay the camels one after the other and drink with his men the water from their bellies. Khalid had a guide named Rafi' ibn-'Umair at-Ta'i whom the poet meant when he said :

"How wonderful has Rafi been, who succeeded in finding the way from Kurakir to Suwa, to the water from which the coward who attempts to reach it returns before attaining it. No human being before thee ever did that!"

When the Moslems arrived in Suwa they found Hurkus and a band of men drinking and singing. Hurkus himself was saying :

" Again give me to drink before abu-Bakr's army is on, our death may be at hand while we are unaware."

As the Moslems killed him, his blood flowed into the basin from which he had been drinking; and some report that his head, too, fell therein. It is claimed by others, 4 however, that the one who sang this verse was one of those of the banu- Taghlib whom Khalid had attacked with Rabi'ah ibn-Bujair.

Khalid in Karkisiya. According to al-Wakidi, Khalid started from Suwa to al-Kawathil thence to Karkisiya whose chief met him with a large host. Khalid left him alone, turned to the mainland and went his way.

Arakah makes terms. Another place to which Khalid came was Arakah (i. e. Arak) whose people he attacked and besieged. The city surrendered and made terms, offering a certain sum for the Moslems.

Dumat al-Jandal, Kusam, Tadmur and al-Karyatain taken. Dumat al-Jandal he then reached and conquered. Then he came to Kusam in which the banu-Mashja'ah ibn-at-Taim ibn-an-Namir ibn-Wabarah ibn-Taghlib ibn-Hulwan ibn-Tmran ibn-al-Hafi ibn-Kuda/ah came to terms with him. Khalid wrote them a promise of security and advanced to Tadmur [Palmyra]. Tadmur's inhabitants held out against him and took to their fortifications. At last they sought to surrender and he wrote them a statement guaran- teeing their safety on condition that they be considered dhimmah people, that they entertain Moslems and that they submit to them. Khalid then pushed to al-Karyatain, whose people resisted him but were defeated, losing a large booty.

Huwarin reduced. Khalid proceeded to Huwarin in Sanir and made a raid on its cattle. Its inhabitants, having been reinforced by the inhabitants of Ba'labakk and of Busra (the capital of Hauran) stood out against him. The victory was won by Khalid who took some as captives and killed others.

Ghassan attacked. Thence he came to Marj Rahit and led an incursion against Ghassan on their Easter day they being Christians. He took some captive and killed others.

Thaniyat al-'Ukab. Khalid then directed Busr ibn-abi-Artat al-'Amiri of the Kuraish and Habib ibn-Maslamah-1-Fihri to the Ghutah of Damascus where they attacked many villages. Khalid arrived at Thaniyat in Damascus, the Thaniyat al-'Ukab of to-day, and stood there for one hour, spreading his banner. This banner was the one the Prophet used, and was black in color; and because the Arabs call a banner " 'ukdb," the Thaniyat was known since as Thaniyat al-'Ukab. Others say that it was thus called because a vulture [Ar. f ukdb] happened to descend on it at that time. But the first explanation is more reliable. I heard it said by some that at that place stood a stone image of a vulture. But there is no truth in that statement.

Khalid meets abu-Ubaidah. Khalid camped at the East [Sharki] gate of Damascus; and according to others, at the Jabiyah gate. The bishop of Damascus offered him gifts and homage and said to Khalid, " Keep this covenant for me." Khalid promised to do so. Then Khalid went until he met the Moslems who were at Kanat Busra. According to others, however, he came to the Jabiyah where abu-'Ubaidah was with a band of Moslems. Here they met and went together to Busra.

Chapter III. The Conquest of Busra

Busra comes to terms. When Khalid ibn-al-Walid at the head of the Moslems arrived in Busra, all the Moslems gathered against it and put Khalid in chief command. 113 They drew close to it and fought its patrician until he was driven with his armed men inside the town. Others assert that since Busra lay within the district of Damascus and, consequently under the rule and commandership of Yazid ibn-abi-Sufyan, it was he who held the chief command. At last its people came to terms stipulating that their lives, property and children be safe, and agreeing to pay the poll-tax. According to some reporters, the inhabitants of Busra made terms agreeing to pay for each adult one dinar and one jarib of wheat.

Thus the Moslems conquered all the region of Hauran [Auranitis] and subdued it.

Ma'db surrenders. Abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, at the head of a heavy detachment composed of the commanders' troops that had joined him, led the way to Ma'ab [Moab] in the district of al-Balka' where the enemy was massed. Ma'ab surrendered and made terms similar to those made by Busra. According to others, however, the conquest of Ma'ab was effected before that of Busra. Still others assert that abu-'Ubaidah conquered Ma'ab when he was the commander of all the Moslem forces in Syria in the days of 'Umar.

Chapter IV. The Battle of Ajnadin (or Ajnadain)

The enemy routed. The battle of Ajnadin ensued. In this battle about 100,000 Greeks took part, the majority of whom were massed one band after the other by Heraclius [Hirakl], the rest having come from the neighboring districts. On that day, Heraclius was in Hims [Emesa]. Against this army, the Moslems fought a violent battle, and Khalid ibn-al-Walid particularly distinguished himself. At last, by Allah's help, the enemies of Allah were routed and shattered into pieces, a great many being slaughtered.

The martyrs. Those who suffered martyrdom on that day were 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubair ibn-'Abd-al-Muttalib ibn-Hashim, 'Amr ibn-Sa'id ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Umaiyah, his brother Aban ibn-Sa'id (according to the most authentic report. Others, however, claim that Aban died in the year 29), Tulaib ibn-'Umair ibn-Wahb ibn-'Abd ibn-Kusai (who fought a duel with an " unbeliever " who gave him a blow that severed his right hand making his sword fall down with the palm. In this condition he was surrounded and killed 114 by the Greeks. His mother Arwa, daughter of 'Abd-al-Muttalib, was the Prophet's aunt. His surname was abu-Adi), and Salamah ibn-Hisham ibn-al-Mughirah. According to others, Salamah was killed at Marj as-Suffar. Other martyrs were: 'Ikrimah ibn-abi-Jahl ibn-Hisham al-Makh- zumi, Habbar ibn-Sufyan ibn-'Abd-al-Asad al-Makhzumi (who, according to others, was killed in the battle of Mu'tah), Nu'aim ibn-'Abdallah an-Nahham al-'Adawi (who, according to others, was killed in the battle of al- Yarmuk), Hisham ibn-al-'Asi ibn-Wa'il as-Sahmi (who is also supposed by others to have been slain in the battle of al-Yarmuk), Jundub ibn-'Amr ad-Dausi, Sa'id ibn-al- Harith, al-Harith ibn-al-Harith, and al-Hajjaj ibn-al- Harith ibn-Kais ibn-'Adi as-Sahmi. According to Hisham ibn-Muhammad al-Kalbi, an-Nahham was killed in the battle of Mu'tah.

Sa'id ibn-al-Harith ibn-Kais was slain in the battle of al- Yarmuk; Tamim ibn-al-Harith, in the battle of Ajnadin; his brother, 'Ubaidallah ibn 'Abd-al-Asad, in al-Yarmuk; and al-Harith ibn-Hisham ibn-al-Mughirah, in Ajnadin.

Heraclius flees to Antioch. When the news of this battle came to Heraclius, his heart was filled with cowardice and he was confounded. Consequently, he took to flight to Antioch [Antakiyah] from Hims [Emesa]. It was mentioned by someone that his flight from Hims to Antioch coincided with the advance of the Moslems to Syria. This battle of Ajnadin took place on Monday twelve days before the end of Jumada I, year 13. Some, however, say two days after the beginning of Jumada II, and others two days before its end.

After that, the Greeks massed an army at Yakusah which was a valley with al-Fauwarah at its mouth. There the Moslems met them, dispelled them and put them to flight with a great slaughter. Their remnants fled to the cities of Syria. The death of abu-Bakr took place in Jumada II, year 13, and the Moslems received the news in al- Yakusah.

Chapter V. The Battle of Fihl in the Province of the Jordan

Abu-Ubaidah commander-in-chief. The battle of Fihl in the province of the Jordan was fought two days before the end of dhu-1-Ka'dah and five months after the proclamation of 'Umar ibn-al-Khattab as caliph. The commander-in-chief was abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, to whom 'Umar had sent a letter with 'Amir ibn-abi-Wakkas, a brother of Sa'd ibn-abi-Wakkas, conferring on him the governorship of Syria and the chief command.

Some say that the appointment of abu-'Ubaidah to the governorship of Syria was received when Damascus was under siege. Khalid being the chief commander in time of war, abu-'Ubaidah concealed the appointment from him for many days. a When asked by Khalid for the reason, abu-'Ubaidah said, " I hated to dishearten thee and weaken thy position as thou stoodst facing an enemy."

Terms made after the victory. The way this battle came about was that when Heraclius came to Antioch he summoned the Greeks and the inhabitants of Mesopotamia to go forth to war, putting them under the command of one of his men in whom he trusted. These met the Moslems at Fihl in the province of the Jordan and a most fierce and bloody battle ensued, which ended, by Allah's help, in the victory of the Moslems. The Greek patrician with about 10,000 men was slaughtered, and the rest of the army distributed themselves in the cities of Syria, some of them joining Heraclius. The inhabitants of Fihl took to the fortifications where they were besieged by the Moslems until they sought to surrender, agreeing to pay tax on their heads and khardj on their lands. The Moslems promised them the security of life and property, agreeing not to demolish their walls. The contract was made by abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrah, but according to others, by Shurahbil ibn-Hasanah.

Chapter XVI. The Frontier Fortresses of Syria

Moslem razzias beyond the frontiers. I was informed by certain sheikhs from Antioch and by others that in the days of 'Umar and 'Uthman, and after their time, the frontier cities of Syria included Antioch and other cities called later al-'Awasim by ar-Rashid. The Moslems used to lead their raids beyond these cities as they now raid what is beyond Tarsus. Between Alexandretta and Tarsus lay Greek forts and frontier garrisons, similar to those through which the Moslems now pass, and the inhabitants of which would sometimes, because of fear, leave them and flee to the Byzantine Empire, and sometimes, Byzantine fighters would be brought and stationed in them. It is said that when Heraclius left Antioch, he joined to himself the people of these towns, so that the Moslems might not be able to go between Antioch and the land of the Byzantines through a cultivated land.

Ibn-Taibun al-Baghrasi from certain sheikhs : The latter said, " What is known to us is that Heraclius moved the 164 men from these forts, which he shattered. So, when the Moslems made their raids, they found them vacant. In certain cases the Greeks would make an ambush by these forts and take by surprise those of the army who were held back or cut off. Thus the leaders of the summer and winter campaigns, on entering the Greek land, would leave heavy troops in these forts until their return."

The first to pass through ad-Darb. Regarding the first one to cross ad-Darb, i. e., Darb Baghras there is a disagreement. Some assert that the first was Maisarah ibn-Masruk al-'Absi who was despatched by abu-'Ubaidah ibn-al-Jarrali and who met a host of Greeks accompanied by the " naturalized " \musta f ribah] Arabs of the Ghassan, Tanukh and lyad, trying to follow Heraclius [in Asia Minor].

Maisarah fell upon them and wrought a bloody massacre among them. He was later joined by Malik al-Ashtar an-Nakha'i sent as a reinforcement by abu-'Ubaidah from Antioch.

According to others, the first to cross ad-Darb was 'Umar ibn-Sa'd al-Ansari, when he was sent in connection with the case of Jabalah ibn-al-Aiham.

According to abu-1-Khattab al-Azdi, abu-'Ubaidah himself led the summer expedition passing through al-Massisah and then through Tarsus whose people, together with those of the fortified cities lying beyond, had evacuated their places. Thus abu-'Ubaidah entered the land of the [Greek] enemy and carried his campaign as far as Zandah. According to others, abu-'Ubaidah did not himself go, but sent Maisarah ibn-Masruk, who reached as far as Zandah.

Mu'awiyah and the forts. Abu-Salih al-Farra' from one supposed by him to have been 'Ubadah ibn-Nusai: When Mu'awiyah in the year 25 invaded 'Ammuriyah [Amorium], he found the forts between Antioch and Tarsus all vacant. He therefore left in those forts some men from Syria, Mesopotamia and Kinnasrin until he had finished his expedition. One or two years later, he sent Yazid ibn-al-Hurr al-'Absi at the head of the summer expedition and instructed him to do the same thing, which Yazid did. All the governors used to do the same.

The same authority says, " I read in the book of Ma- ghdzi Mu'dwiyah [Mu'awiyah's campaigns] that Mu- 'awiyah in the year 31 led an invasion setting out from near al-Massisah and penetrating as far as Darauliyah. On his return, he destroyed all the fortresses [belonging to the 165 Greeks] between the latter place and Antioch.

Al-Massisah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi and others: in the year 84, 'Abdallah ibn-'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan led the summer campaign, entered through the Darb Antakiyah and reached al-Massisah [Mopsuestia], where he rebuilt the fort on its old foundations. In this city, he caused troops to settle, among whom were 300 chosen from those known to be among the most valorous and strong. The Moslems had never lived in this town before. He also built a mosque in it over Tall al-Hisn [the hill of the fort], and then led his army to the invasion of Sinan fort, which he reduced. He then sent Yazid ibn-Hunain at-Ta'i-1-Antaki who led an incursion and returned.

Abu-1-Khattab al-Azdi holds that the first Moslem to build the fort of al-Massisah was 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Marwan through his son 'Abdallah in the year 84 on its old foundation. Its building and manning were completed in the year 85. In this fortified town stood a church which was converted into a granary. The troops [Ar. tawdli'] from Antioch, numbering 1,500-2,000, used to go up to it every year and spend the winter in it, at the end of which they would leave.

When 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz came to the granary of al-Massisah, he wanted to destroy the town together with the forts that lay between it and Antioch saying, " I hate to see the Greeks besieging its people." When he, however, learned that the town was built to check the Greek advance on Antioch, and that, in case it was destroyed, nothing would remain to stop the enemy from taking Antioch, he desisted and erected for its people a cathedral mosque in the Kafarbaiya quarter. In the mosque, he made a cistern whereon his name was inscribed. In the caliphate of al-Mu'tasim-Billah, the mosque, which was called Masjid al-Hisn [the fort mosque], fell into ruins.

Hisham ibn-'Abd-al-Malik built the part outside the city wall [Ar. rabad] ; and Marwan ibn-Muhammad built, to the east of Jaihan, al-Khusus [wood houses], around which he erected a wall with a wooden gate, and dug a moat.

When abu-1-' Abbas became caliph, he assigned stipends for 400 men to be added to the garrison at al-Massisah, and distributed fiefs among them. When al-Mansur became caliph, he assigned stipends for 400 men at al-Massisah. In the year 139, al-Mansur ordered that the city of al-Massisah, the wall of which had become shattered by earthquakes and whose population within the walls had become few in number, be well populated. Accordingly, in the year 140, he built the wall of the city, made its inhabi- tants settle in it and called it al-Ma'murah. Moreover, al- Mansur erected a cathedral mosque in it on the site of a heathen temple, and made it many times the size of the mosque of 'Umar. Al-Ma'mun enlarged the mosque in the governorship of 'Abdallah ibn-Tahir ibn-al-Husain over al- Maghrib. Al-Mansur assigned stipends for 1,000 men of its inhabitants. Besides, he transplanted [into it] the inhabitants of al-Khusus, who were Persians, Slavs and Christian Nabateans all of whom were settled in al- Khusus by Marwan gave them in it lots marked for dwellings in exchange for and of the same measure as their old homes, pulled down their old dwellings and helped them to build the new ones. To these soldiers, who received sti- pends, al-Mansur gave fiefs and dwellings.

When al-Mahdi became caliph, he assigned stipends for 2,000 men at al-Massisah but gave them no fiefs, because the city was already manned with troops and volunteers. The periodical contingents [tawdli 1 ] used to come from Antioch every year until the city was governed by Salim al-Barallusi, who assigned in their place * stipends for 500 fighters, making a special rate of 10 dinars for each. Thus the people of the city were multiplied and strengthened. This took place when al-Mahdi held the caliphate.

Muhammad ibn-Sahm from the sheikhs of the frontier region : In the days of the " blessed dynasty ", the Greeks pressed the inhabitants of al-Massisah so hard that they left the city. After that Salih ibn-'Ali sent to it Jabril ibn- Yahya-1-Bajali who peopled it and made Moslems settle in it in the year 140. Ar-Rashid 2 built Kafarbaiya; but ac- cording to others it was begun in the caliphate of al-Mahdi, and ar-Rashid changed the plan of its construction and for- tified it with a moat. Its inhabitants complained to al- Ma'mun concerning the rent 3 paid for the houses therein, and he abolished it. The houses were like inns. By order of al-Ma'mun, a wall was commenced around the city and raised high, but not completed before his death. Al-Mu- 'tasim-Billah ordered that the wall be finished and raised to its proper height.

Al-Muthakkab. Al-Muthakkab 4 was fortified by Hisham

1 Read maudi'aha in place of maudi'ahu.

2 Mas'udi, vol. viii, p. 295.

s Ar ghallah, i. e., rent due for houses built on the state property.

• Istakhri, p. 63; Qaukal, p. 121.

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ibn-'Abd-al-Malik who entrusted the work to Hassan ibn- Mahawaih al-Antaki. As the moat was being dug, a leg- bone of extraordinary length was found and sent to Hi- sham.

Katarghash, Murah and Baghrds. Hisham also had Katarghash fort built by 'Abd-al-'Aziz ibn-Haiyan al- Antaki. He also had Murah fort erected by a man from Antioch. This last fort was built because the Greeks had interfered with one of his messengers at Darb al-Lukam near al-'Akabah-l-Baida. In this fort, he stationed forty men and a body of al-Jarajimah. In Baghras [Pagrae]. he established a garrison of fifty men and built a fort for it. Hisham, moreover, built the Buka fort in the province of Antioch, which was recently renewed and repaired.

After the Greeks had made a raid on the littoral of the province of Antioch in the caliphate of al-Mu'tasim-Billah, a fort was built on that littoral by Muhammad ibn-Yusuf al-Marwazi, surnamed abu-Sa'id.

f Umar intends to destroy al-Masslsah. Da'ud ibn-'Abd- al-Hamid, the kadi of ar-Rakkah, from a grandfather of his : 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz intended to destroy al-Mas- sisah and move its inhabitants because they suffered so much from the Greeks ; but he died before he could accom- plish it.

'Akabat an-Nisa. I was informed by certain men from Antioch and Baghras that when Maslamah ibn-'Abd-al- Malik invaded 'Ammuriyah, he took his wives with him; and other men in his army did the same. The banu-Umaiyah used to do that in order to infuse enthusiasm in the army by making them jealous for their harem. As Maslamah was passing through 'Akabat * Baghras on a narrow road that bordered on a valley, a stretcher in which a woman was carried fell down to the foot of the mountain. This made

1 \ place difficult of ascent.

THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 259

Maslamah order that all women should go on foot. So they did ; and that 'Akabat was, therefore, called " 'Aka- bat an-Nisa'" [the women's 'Akabat]. Previous to this, al-Mu'tasim had built on the edge of that road a low stone wall.

The roads of Antioch cleared of lions by means of buffaloes. It was stated by abu-an-Nu'man al-Antaki that the road between Antioch and al-Massisah was frequented by lions which molested the passers-by. When al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik came to rule, the complaint was made to him, and he sent 4,000 buffaloes by which the required re- sult was attained through Allah's help.

Muhammad ibn-al-Kasim ath-Thakafi, the 'amil of al- Hajjaj over as-Sind, had sent from as-Sind thousands of buffaloes to al-Hajjaj, who gave al-Walid 4,000 of them, 168 and left the rest in the jungles of Kaskar. 1 When Yazid ibn-al-Muhallab was deposed and killed, and the possessions of the banu-1-Muhallab were confiscated by Yazid ibn-'Abd- al-Malik, the latter carried away 4,000 buffaloes, which were in the districts of Dijlah 2 and Kaskar. These, too, Yazid sent to al-Massisah together with az-Zutt sent there. Thus the buffaloes at al-Massisah were originally 8,000. At the time of the insurrection of Marwan ibn-Muhammacl ibn- Marwan the people of Antioch and Kinnasrin brought under their control and took possession of many of these animals ; but when al-Mansur became caliph he ordered that they be restored to al-Massisah. As for the buffaloes of Antioch, they were first brought by az-Zutt, and so were the first ones of Buka.

Jisr al-Walid. According to abu-1-Khattab, the bridge on the road of Adhanah [Adana] from al-Massisah lay nine

1 Hamadhani, Buldan, p. 196; ibn-Khurdadhbih, p. 7. 1 Yakut, vol. iii. p. 745.

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miles from the latter, was built in the year 125, and was called Jisr al-Walid after al-Walid ibn-'Abd-al-Malik, who was slain.

Adhanah. According to abu-an-Nu'man al-Antaki and others, Adhanah was built in the year 141 or 142 as the Khurasan troops under Maslamah ibn-Yahya-1-Bajali, and the Syrian troops under Malik ibn-Adham al-Bahili (all sent by Salih ibn-'Ali) were camping in it.

Saihan castle. In the year 165, al-Mahdi sent his son Harun ar-Rashid on an expedition to the Greek Empire. After camping at al-Khalij, ar-Rashid went forth and re- paired al-Massisah and its mosque, increasing its garrison and arming its inhabitants. He also built the castle which lay by Saihan [Sarus river] near Adhanah bridge. Pre- vious to this, al-Mansur had sent Salih ibn-'Ali on an in- vasion to the Greek Empire, and the latter sent Hilal ibn- Daigham, at the head of a group of men from Damascus, the Jordan and other places, who built this castle; but the structure not being firm, ar-Rashid dismantled the castle and rebuilt it.

Abu-Sulaim rebuilds Adhanah. In the year 194 * abu- Sulaim Faraj al-Khadim built Adhanah well and strong, fortified it, and chose men from Khurasan and others to live in it, giving them an increase of stipends. All that was done by the order of Muhammad ibn-ar-Rashid. He also made repairs in Kasr Saihan. When ar-Rashid died in the year 193, his 'dmil for collecting tithes from the fron- tier fortresses was abu-Sulaim who was now confirmed in his position by Muhammad [ibn-ar-Rashid]. To this abu- Sulaim belonged the residence in Antioch [that bears his 169 name].

Tarsus and al-Hadath. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-

1 " 193 " in Yakut, vol. i, p. 179, line 19.

THE FRONTIER FORTRESSES OF SYRIA 2 6l

Wakidi: In the year 162, al-Hasan ibn-Kahtabah at-Ta'i invaded the land of the Greeks at the head of an army of the people of Khurasan, Mausil, 1 and Syria, reinforced by men from al-Yaman and volunteers from al-'Irak and al-Hijaz. He started near Tarsus and called the attention of al-Mahdi to the great troubles spared to Islam, and the good chance it afforded to frustrate and avert the enemies' intrigues and plans by building Tarsus, fortifying it and stationing a gar- rison in it. In that campaign, al-Hasan distinguished him- self and subdued the land of the Greeks, and was therefore called ash-Shaitan [the devil]. Among his men in the in- vasion were Mandal al-'Anazi the traditionist of the school of al-Kufah and Mu'tamir ibn-Sulaiman al-Basri. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from Sa'd ibn-al-Hasan : When al-Hasan left the land of the Greeks, he camped at Marj [plain of] Tarsus from which he rode to the city, which was then in ruins. After examining it, he went around it in all directions and estimated that it could be inhabited by one hundred thousand. 2 When he appeared before al- Mahdi, he described the condition of the city and referred to the strength that Islam and the Moslems would acquire, and to the anger and disappointment that will ensue to the en- emy, if the city were rebuilt and manned with a garrison. He also told al-Mahdi something about al-Hadath that encour- aged him to build it. Accordingly, al-Mahdi ordered him to build Tarsus and start with al-Hadath, which was imme- diately built. Al-Mahdi then ordered that Tarsus be built. In the year 171, ar-Rashid heard that the Greeks had en- joined one another to set forth to Tarsus in order to for- tify it and station troops in it. He therefore sent in the year 171 Harthamah ibn-A'yan as commander of the sum- mer campaign and ordered him to build Tarsus, settle people

Hamadhani, Buldan, pp. 26-27, 128. * Ibid., p. 113.

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in it and make it a fortified boundary town between the two countries. Harthamah did so, putting the work, in accordance with ar-Rashid's orders, in charge of Faraj ibn-Sulaim al-Khadim. Faraj put someone in charge, went to Madinat as-Salam and sent the first garrison, numbering 3,000, whom he chose from among the people of Khurasan. The garrison came to Tarsus. He then sent the second garrison that numbered 2,000 men, 1,000 of whom were from al-Massisah and 1,000 from Antioch, promising each man an increment of ten dinars on his original stipend. The 170 second garrison camped with the first at al-Mada'in near Bab al- Jihad, from the beginning of Muharram in the year 172, until the construction of the city of Tarsus with its fortification and mosque was completed. Faraj measured the land between the two rivers and found it to be 4,000 lots, each lot being twenty dhird's square. These lots he gave as fiefs to the inhabitants of Tarsus. In Rabi' II, 172, the two garrisons settled in the city.

Yazid ibn-Makhlad governor of Tarsus. 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Salih appointed Yazid ibn-Makhlad al-Fazari as amil over Tarsus. Those of the inhabitants who came from Khurasan were afraid of him, because he belonged to the clan of al-Hubairiyah, and drove him from the city. He appointed abu-1-Fawaris to succeed him and 'Abd-al-Malik ibn-Salih confirmed abu-1-Fawaris in his position. This took place in the year 173.

Sisiyah. Muhammad ibn-Sa'd from al-Wakidi: In the year 194 or 193, the inhabitants of Sisiyah [or Sis, later Little Armenia] evacuated their homes and went as far as the mountainous region of the Greeks. This Sisiyah was the city of Tall 'Ain-Zarbah and was rebuilt in the caliphate of al-Mutawakkil by 'AH ibn-Yahya-1-Armani [the Armenian] . It was later ruined by the Greeks.

Antioch burnt. The one who burnt Antioch condemned as it was to burning * in the land of the Greeks was 'Ab-bas ibn-al-Walid ibn-'Abd- al-Malik.

Tall Jubair. Tall Jubair was so called after a Persian from Antioch who fought a battle in it. The Tall lies less than 10 miles from Tarsus.

Dhu-l-Kilaf . The name of the fort known as dhu-1-Kila is really a corruption of dhu-1-Kila' [the fort of the castles], which name was given to it because it was made up of three castles. The explanation of its name in the Greek tongue is " the fortress with the stars."

Kanlsat as-Sulh. Kanisat as-Sulh [the church of peace] was so called because when the Greeks came to ar-Rashid to capitulate, they made it their headquarters.

Marj Husain. Marj Husain was named after Husain ibn-Muslim al-Antaki who fought a battle in it and defeated the enemy.

Damdlu. In the year 163, al-Mahdi sent on a campaign his son, Harun ar-Rashid, who laid siege to Damalu (collo-quial Samalu). Its people asked a promise of security for ten of their nobility including the Comes. Ar-Rashid consented. One of their terms stipulated that they be never separated from one another. Therefore they were settled in Baghdadh near Bab ash-Shammasiyah. Their quarter they called Samalu, and it is still known as such. Others say that they surrendered to al-Mahdi who spared their lives and gathered them in that place, ordering that it be called 171 Samalu. According to ar-Rashid's orders, those who were left in the fort were sold publicly.

One Abyssinian, who was heard cursing ar-Rashid and the Moslems, was crucified on one of the towers of the fort.

'Ain Zarbah and al-Hdrimiyah. Ahmad ibn-al-Harith al-Wasiti from al-Wakidi : In the year 180, ar-Rashid ordered that the city of 'Ain Zarbah [Anazarbus] be built and fortified. He summoned to it a regiment from Khurasan and others, to whom he gave houses as fiefs. In the year 183, he ordered al-Haruniyah built. It was accordingly built and manned with a garrison and with volunteers that emigrated to it. The city was named after him. Others say that Harun started its erection in the caliphate of al-Mahdi, but completed it in his own caliphate.

Kanisat as-Sauda'. The city of Kanisat as-Sauda' [black church] had been built by the Greeks of black stone since the earliest of days, and had an old fort that was destroyed in the general havoc. Ar-Rashid ordered that this city be rebuilt and fortified. He also summoned to it troops, al-lowing them larger stipends. I was told by 'Azzun ibn- Sa'd, one of the inhabitants of the frontier region, that the Greeks once invaded it as al-Kasim ibn-ar-Rashid was staying in Dabik and carried away its cattle and a number of prisoners. They were pursued by the people of al-Massisah and its volunteers, who saved all that had been carried away and killed many of the Greeks, sending the rest of them back in distress and disorder. Then al-Kasim sent some one to fortify the city, make repairs in it and increase its garrison. For this purpose some of az-Zutt, previously transplanted by al-Mu'tasim to 'Ain Zarbah and its environs from al-Bata'ih, which lay between Wasit and al-Basrah, and which they had conquered, were available.

Abu-Ishak al-Fazari's opinion on the land of ath-Thaghr. I was informed by abu-Salih al-Antaki that abu-Ishak al-Fazari hated to buy land in the frontier region [ath-Thaghr] because he said, " Those who first wrested this land from the Greeks did not divide it among themselves, and it later passed to others. Thus it had been transmitted to others and attached to itself a suspicion that the wise man would do well to avoid."

Tithe-exemptions annulled by al-Mutawakkil. In athThaghr, so many pieces of land were exempt from the tithe that the total income of tithes was diminished to such an extent that it could not meet the expenses. By al-Mutawak-wil's orders, therefore, all these exemptions were in the year 243 abolished.