1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ballistics

by Alfred George Greenhill

BALLISTICS (from the Gr. βάλλειν, to throw), the science of throwing warlike missiles or projectiles. It is now divided into two parts:—Exterior Ballistics, in which the motion of the projectile is considered after it has received its initial impulse, when the projectile is moving freely under the influence of gravity and the resistance of the air, and it is required to determine the circumstances so as to hit a certain object, with a view to its destruction or perforation; and Interior Ballistics, in which the pressure of the powder-gas is analysed in the bore of the gun, and the investigation is carried out of the requisite charge of powder to secure the initial velocity of the projectile, without straining the gun unduly. The calculation of the stress in the various parts of the gun due to the powder pressure is dealt with in the article Ordnance.

I. Exterior Ballistics.

In the ancient theory due to Galileo, the resistance of the air is ignored, and, as shown in the article on Mechanics (§ 13), the trajectory is now a parabola. But this theory is very far from being of practical value for most purposes of gunnery; so that a first requirement is an accurate experimental knowledge of the resistance of the air to the projectiles employed, at all velocities useful in artillery. The theoretical assumptions of Newton and Euler (hypotheses magis mathematicae quam naturales) of a resistance varying as some simple power of the velocity, for instance, as the square or cube of the velocity (the quadratic or cubic law), lead to results of great analytical complexity, and are useful only for provisional extrapolation at high or low velocity, pending further experiment.

The foundation of our knowledge of the resistance of the air, as employed in the construction of ballistic tables, is the series of experiments carried out between 1864 and 1880 by the Rev. F. Bashforth, B.D. (Report on the Experiments made with the Bashforth Chronograph, &c., 1865–1870; Final Report, &c., 1878–1880; The Bashforth Chronograph, Cambridge, 1890). According to these experiments, the resistance of the air can be represented by no simple algebraical law over a large range of velocity. Abandoning therefore all a priori theoretical assumption, Bashforth set to work to measure experimentally the velocity of shot and the resistance of the air by means of equidistant electric screens furnished with vertical threads or wire, and by a chronograph which measured the instants of time at which the screens were cut by a shot flying nearly horizontally. Formulae of the calculus of finite differences enable us from the chronograph records to infer the velocity and retardation of the shot, and thence the resistance of the air.

As a first result of experiment it was found that the resistance of similar shot was proportional, at the same velocity, to the surface or cross section, or square of the diameter. The resistance R can thus be divided into two factors, one of which is d², where d denotes the diameter of the shot in inches, and the other factor is denoted by p, where p is the resistance in pounds at the same velocity to a similar 1-in, projectile; thus R =d²p, and the value of p, for velocity ranging from 1600 to 2150 ft. per second (f/s) is given in the second column of the extract from the abridged ballistic table below.

These values of p refer to a standard density of the air, of 534·22 grains per cubic foot, which is the density of dry air at sea-level in the latitude of Greenwich, at a temperature of 62° F. and a barometric height of 30 in.

But in consequence of the humidity of the climate of England it is better to suppose the air to be (on the average) two-thirds saturated with aqueous vapour, and then the standard temperature will be reduced to 60°F., so as to secure the same standard density; the density of the air being reduced perceptibly by the presence of the aqueous vapour.

It is further assumed, as the result of experiment, that the resistance is proportional to the density of the air; so that if the standard density changes from unity to any other relative density denoted by τ, then R = τd²p, and τ is called the coefficient of tenuity.

The factor τ becomes of importance in long range high angle fire, where the shot reaches the higher attenuated strata of the atmosphere; on the other hand, we must take τ about 800 in a calculation of shooting under water.

The resistance of the air is reduced considerably in modern projectiles by giving them a greater length and a sharper point, and by the omission of projecting studs, a factor κ, called the coefficient of shape, being introduced to allow for this change.

For a projectile in which the ogival head is struck with a radius of 2 diameters, Bashforth puts κ= 0·975; on the other hand, for a flat-headed projectile, as required at proof-butts, κ= 1·8, say 2 on the average.

For spherical shot κ is not constant, and a separate ballistic table must be constructed; but κ may be taken as 1·7 on the average.

Lastly, to allow for the superior centering of the shot obtainable with the breech-loading system, Bashforth introduces a factor σ, called the coefficient of steadiness.

This steadiness may vary during the flight of the projectile, as the shot may be unsteady for some distance after leaving the muzzle, afterwards steadying down, like a spinning-top. Again, σ may increase as the gun wears out, after firing a number of rounds.

Collecting all the coefficients, τ, κ, σ, into one, we put

(1)	R＝nd2p＝nd2f(v), where

(2)

n＝κ σ τ

and n is called the coefficient of reduction.

By means of a well-chosen value of n, determined by a few experiments, it is possible, pending further experiment, with the most recent design, to Utilize Bashforth’s experimental results carried out with old-fashioned projectiles fired from muzzle-loading guns. For instance, n= 0·8 or even less is considered a good average for the modern rifle bullet.

Starting with the experimental values of p, for a standard projectile, fired under standard conditions in air of standard density, we proceed to the construction of the ballistic table. We first determine the time t in seconds required for the velocity of a shot, d inches in diameter and weighing w ℔ to fall from any initial velocity V(f/s) to any final velocity v(f/s). The shot is supposed to move horizontally, and the curving effect of gravity is ignored.

If Δt seconds is the time during which the resistance of the air, R ℔, causes the velocity of the shot to fall Δv(f/s), so that the velocity drops from v+1/2Δv to v−1/2Δv in passing through the mean velocity v, then

(3)	RΔt＝loss of momentum in second-pounds,
	＝w(v+1/2Δv)/g−w(v−1/2Δv)/g＝wΔv/gp

so that with the value of R in (1),

(4)	Δt＝wΔv/nd2pg.

We put

(5)

w/nd2＝C,

and call C the ballistic coefficient (driving power) of the shot, so that

(6)	＝CΔT, where

(7)

T＝Δv/gp,

and ΔT is the time in seconds for the velocity to drop Δv of the standard shot for which C=1, and for which the ballistic table is calculated.

Since p is determined experimentally and tabulated as a function of v, the velocity is taken as the argument of the ballistic table; and taking δv=10, the average value of p in the interval is used to determine ΔT.

Denoting the value of T at any velocity v by T (v), then

(8)	T(v)＝sum of all the preceding values of ΔT plus an arbitrary constant, expressed by the notation

(9)	T(v)＝Σ(Δv)/gp+ a constant, or ∫dv/gp+ a constant, in which p is supposed known as a function of v.

The constant may be any arbitrary number, as in using the table the difference only is required of two tabular values for an initial velocity V and final velocity v; and thus

(10)	T(V)−T(v)＝$\Sigma _{v}^{\mbox{v}}$ Δv/gp or $\int _{v}^{\mbox{v}}$ dv/gp;

and for a shot whose ballistic coefficient is C

(11)	t＝C[T(V)−T(v)]

To save the trouble of proportional parts the value of T(v) for unit increment of v is interpolated in a full-length extended ballistic table for T.

Next, if the shot advances a distance Δs ft. in the time Δt, during which the velocity falls from v+1/2v to v−1/2v we have

(12)   Rs	＝	loss of kinetic energy in foot-pounds,
		$w(v+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\Delta v)^{2}/g-w(v-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\Delta v)^{2}/g=wv\Delta v/g$, so that

(13)	Δs＝wvΔv/nd2pg＝C ΔS, where,

(14)	ΔS＝vΔv/gp＝vΔT,

and ΔS is the advance in feet of a shot for which C=1, while the velocity falls Δv in passing through the average velocity v.

Denoting by S(v) the sum of all the values of ΔS up to any assigned velocity v,

(15)	S(v)＝Σ(ΔS)+ a constant, by which S(v) is calculated from ΔS, and then between two assigned velocities V and v,

(16)	S(V)−S(v)＝${\begin{matrix}\sum _{v}^{V}\Delta T\end{matrix}}=\sum {\frac {v\Delta v}{gp}}{\mbox{or}}\int _{v}^{V}{\frac {vdv}{gp}},$

and if s feet is the advance of a shot whose ballistic coefficient is C,

(17)	s＝C[S(V)−S(v)]

In an extended table of S, the value is interpolated for unit increment of velocity.

A third table, due to Sir W.D. Niven, F.R.S., called the degree table, determines the change of direction of motion of the shot while the velocity changes from V to v, the shot flying nearly horizontally.

To explain the theory of this table, suppose the tangent at the point of the trajectory, where the velocity is v, to make an angle i radians with the horizon.

Resolving normally in the trajectory, and supposing the resistance of the air to act tangentially,

(18)	v(di/dt)＝g cos i,

where di denotes the infinitesimal decrement of i in the infinitesimal increment of time dt. In a problem of direct fire, where the trajectory is flat enough for cos i to be undistinguishable from unity, equation (16) becomes

(19)  $v(di/dt)=g,{\mbox{ or }}di/dt=g/v;\,$

so that we can put

(20)  $\Delta i/\Delta t=g/v,\,$

if v denotes the mean velocity during the small finite interval of time Δt, during which the direction of motion of the shot changes through Δi radians.

If the inclination or change of inclination in degrees is denoted by δ or Δδ,

(21)  $\delta /180=i/\pi$, so that

(22)  $\Delta \delta ={\frac {180}{\pi }}\Delta i={\frac {180g}{\pi }}{\frac {\Delta t}{v}};$

and if δ and i change to D and I for the standard projectile,

(23)  $\Delta I=g{\frac {\Delta T}{v}}={\frac {\Delta v}{vp}},\Delta D={\frac {180}{\pi }}{\frac {\Delta T}{v}},{\mbox{ and}}$

(24)  $I(V)-I(v)=\sum _{v}^{V}{\frac {\Delta v}{vp}}{\mbox{ or }}\int _{v}^{V}{\frac {dv}{vp}},\,\,D(V)-D(v)={\frac {180}{\pi }}\left\lbrack I(V)-I(v)\right\rbrack .$

The differences ΔD and ΔI are thus calculated, while the values of D(v) and I(v) are obtained by summation with the arithmometer, and entered in their respective columns.

For some purposes it is preferable to retain the circular measure, i radians, as being undistinguishable from sin i and tan i when i is small as in direct fire.

The last function A, called the altitude function, will be explained when high angle fire is considered.

These functions, T, S, D, I, A, are shown numerically in the following extract from an abridged ballistic table, in which the velocity is taken as the argument and proceeds by an increment of 10 f/s; the column for p is the one determined by experiment, and the remaining columns follow by calculation in the manner explained above. The initial values of T, S, D, I, A must be accepted as belonging to the anterior portion of the table.

In any region of velocity where it is possible to represent p with sufficient accuracy by an empirical formula composed of a single power of v, say v^m, the integration can be effected which replaces the summation in (10), (16), and (24); and from an analysis of the Krupp experiments Colonel Zabudski found the most appropriate index m in a region of velocity as given in the following table, and the corresponding value of gp, denoted by f(v) or v^m/k or its equivalent Cr, where r is the retardation.

Abridged Ballistic Table.

v.	p.	ΔT.	T.	ΔS.	S.	ΔD.	D.	ΔI.	I.	ΔA.	A.
f/s
1600	11·416	·0271	27·5457	43·47	18587·00	·0311	49·7729	·000543	·868675	37·77	8470·36
1610	11·540	·0268	27·5728	43·27	18630·47	·0306	49·8040	·000534	·869218	37·63	8508·13
1620	11·662	·0265	27·5996	43·08	18673·74	·0301	49·8346	·000525	·869752	37·48	8545·76
1630	11·784	·0262	27·6261	42·90	18716·82	·0296	49·8647	·000517	·870277	37·35	8583·24
1640	11·909	·0260	27·6523	42·72	18759·72	·0291	49·8943	·000508	·870794	37·21	8620·59
1650	12·030	·0257	27·6783	42·55	18802·44	·0287	49·9234	·000500	·871302	37·09	8657·80
1660	12·150	·0255	27·7040	42·39	18844·99	·0282	49·9521	·000492	·871802	36·96	8694·89
1670	12·268	·0252	27·7295	42·18	18887·38	·0277	49·9803	·000484	·872294	36·80	8731·85
1680	12·404	·0249	27·7547	41·98	18929·56	·0273	50·0080	·000476	·872778	36·65	8768·65
1690	12·536	·0247	27·7796	41·78	18971·54	·0268	50·0353	·000468	·873254	36·50	8805·30
1700	12·666	·0244	27·8043	41·60	19013·32	·0264	50·0621	·000461	·873722	36·35	8841·80
1710	12·801	·0242	27·8287	41·41	19054·92	·0260	50·0885	·000453	·874183	36·21	8878·15
1720	12·900	0·239	27·8529	41·23	19096·33	·0256	50·1145	·000446	·874636	36·07	8914·36
1730	13·059	·0237	27·8768	41·06	19137·56	·0252	50·1401	·000439	·875082	35·94	8950·43
1740	13·191	·0234	27·9005	40·90	19178·62	·0248	50·1653	·000432	·875521	35·81	8986·37
1750	13·318	·0232	27·9239	40·69	19219·52	·0244	50·1901	·000425	·875953	35·65	9022·18
1760	13·466	·0230	27·9471	40·53	19260·21	·0240	50·2145	·000419	·876378	35·53	9057·83
1770	13·591	·0227	27·9701	40·33	19300·74	·0236	50·2385	·000412	·876797	35·37	9093·36
1780	13·733	·0225	27·9928	40·19	19341·07	·0233	50·2621	·000406	·877209	35·26	9128·73
1790	13·862	·0223	28·0153	40·00	19381·26	·0229	50·2854	·000400	·877615	35·11	9163·99
1800	14·002	·0221	28·0376	39·81	19421·26	·0225	50·3083	·000393	·878015	34·96	9199·10
1810	14·149	·0219	28·0597	39·68	19461·07	·0222	50·3308	·000388	·878408	34·86	9234·06
1820	14·269	·0217	28·0816	39·51	19500·75	·0219	50·3530	·000382	·878796	34·73	9268·92
1830	14·414	·0214	28·1033	39·34	19540·26	·0216	50·3749	·000376	·879178	34·59	9303·65
1840	14·552	·0212	28·1247	39·17	19579·60	·0212	50·3965	·000370	·879554	34·46	9338·24
1850	14·696	·0210	28·1459	39·01	19618·77	·0209	50·4177	·000365	·879924	34·33	9372·70
1860	14·832	·0209	28·1669	38·90	19657·78	·0206	50·4386	·000360	·880289	34·25	9407·03
1870	14·949	·0207	28·1878	38·75	19696·68	·0203	50·4592	·000355	·880649	34·14	9441·28
1880	15·090	·0205	28·2085	38·61	19735·43	·0200	50·4795	·000350	·881004	34·02	9475·42
1890	15·224	·0203	28·2290	38·46	19774·04	·0198	50·4995	·000345	·881354	33·91	9509·44
1900	15·364	·0201	28·2493	38·32	19812·50	·0195	50·5193	·000340	·881699	33·80	9543·35
1910	15·496	·0199	28·2694	38·19	19850·82	·0192	50·5388	·000335	·882039	33·69	9577·15
1920	15·656	·0197	28·2893	38·01	19889·01	·0189	50·5580	·000330	·882374	33·55	9610·84
1930	15·809	·0196	28-3090	37·83	19927·02	·0186	50·5769	·000325	·882704	33·40	9644·39
1940	15·968	·0194	28·3286	37·66	19964·85	·0184	50·5955	·000320	·883029	33·26	9677·79
1950	16·127	·0192	28·3480	37·48	20002·51	·0181	50·6139	·000316	·883349	33·12	9711·05
1960	16·302	·0190	28·3672	37·26	20039·99	·0178	50·6320	·000311	·883665	32·94	9744·17
1970	16·484	·0187	28·3862	36·99	20077·25	·0175	50·6498	·000305	·883976	32·71	9777·11
1980	16·689	·0185	28·4049	36·73	20114·24	·0172	50·6673	·000300	·884281	32·48	9809·82
1990	16·888	·0183	28·4234	36·47	20150·97	·0169	50·6845	·000295	·884581	32·26	9842·30
2000	17·096	·0181	28·4417	36·21	20187·44	·0166	50·7014	·000290	·884876	32·05	9874·56
2010	17·305	·0178	28·4598	35·95	20223·65	·0163	50·7180	·000285	·885166	31·83	9906·61
2020	17·515	·0176	28·4776	35·65	20259·60	·0160	50·7343	·000280	·885451	31·57	9938·44
2030	17·752	·0174	28·4952	35·35	20295·25	·0158	50·7503	·000275	·885731	31·32	9970·01
2040	17·990	·0171	28·5126	35·06	20330·60	·0155	50·7661	·000270	·886006	31·07	10001·33
2050	18·229	·0169	28·5297	34·77	20365·66	·0152	50·7816	·000265	·886276	30·82	10032·40
2060	18·463	·0167	28·5466	34·49	20400·43	·0149	50·7968	·000260	·886541	30·58	10063·33
2070	18·706	·0165	28·5633	34·21	20434·92	·0147	50·8117	·000256	·886801	30·34	10093·80
2080	18·978	·0163	28·5798	33·93	20469·13	·0144	50·8264	·000251	·887057	30·10	10124·14
2090	19·227	·0160	28·5961	33·60	20503·06	·0141	50·8408	·000247	·887308	29·82	10154·24
2100	19·504	·0158	28·6121	33·34	20536·66	·0139	50·8549	·000242	·887555	29·59	10184·06
2110	19·755	·0156	28·6279	33·02	20570·00	·0136	50·8688	·000238	·887797	29·32	10213·65
2120	20·010	·0154	28·6435	32·76	20603·02	·0134	50·8824	·000234	·888035	29·10	10242·97
2130	20·294	·0152	28·6589	32·50	20635·78	·0132	50·8958	·000230	·888269	28·88	10272·07
2140	20·551	·0150	28·6741	32·25	20688·28	·0129	50·9090	·000226	·888499	28·66	10300·95
2150	20·811	·0149	28·6891	32·00	20700·53	·0127	50·9219	·000222	·888725	28·44	10329·61

v.	m.	log k.	Cr=gp=f(v)=vm/k.
3600	1.55	2·3909520	v 1·55 × log−1  3·6090480
2600	1.7	2·9038022	v 1·7⁠× log−1  3·0961978
1800	2	3·8807404	v 2  × log−1  4·1192596
1370	3	7·0190977	v 3  × log−1  4·9809023
1230	5	13·1981288	v 5  × log−1 14·8018712
970	3	7·2265570	v 3  × log−1  8·7734430
790	2	4·3301086	v 2  × log−1  5·6698914

The numbers have been changed from kilogramme-metre to pound-foot units by Colonel Ingalls, and employed by him in the calculation of an extended ballistic table, which can be compared with the result of the abridged table. The calculation can be carried out in each region of velocity from the formulae:—

(25)  $T(V)-T(v)=k\int _{v}^{V}v^{-m}dv,\ S(V)-S(v)=k\int _{v}^{V}v^{m+1}dv$

$I(V)-I(v)=gk\int _{v}^{V}v^{-m-1}dv,$

and the corresponding integration.

The following exercises will show the application of the ballistic table. A slide rule should be used for the arithmetical operations, as it works to the accuracy obtainable in practice.

Example 1.- Determine the time t sec. and distance s ft. in which the velocity falls from 2150 to 1600 f/s

(a) of a 6-in. shot weighing 100lb, taking n=0.96,

(b) of a rifle bullet, 0.303-in. calibre, weighing half an ounce, taking n=0·8.

V.	v.	T(V).	T(v).	t/C.	S(V).	S(v).	s/C.
2150	1600	28·6891	27·5457	1·1434	20700·53	18587·00	2113·53

	d.	w.	C.	t/C.	t.	s/C.	s.
(a)	6	100	2·894	1·1434	3·307	2113·53	6114 (2038yds.)
(b)	0·303	1/32	0·426	1·1434	0·486	2113·53	900 (300yds.)

Example 2.—Determine the remaining velocity v and time of flight t over a range of 1000 yds. of the same two shot, fired with the same muzzle velocity V=2150f/s.

	S.	s/C.	S(V).	S(v).	v.	T(V).	T(v).	t/C.	t.
(a)	3000	1037	20700·53	19663·53	1861	28·6891	28·1690	0·5201	1·505
(b)	3000	7050	20700·53	13650·53	920*	28·6891	23·0803	5·6088	2·387

* These numbers are taken from a part omitted here of the abridged ballistic table.

In the calculation of range tables for direct fire, defined officially as “fire from guns with full charge at elevation not exceeding 15°,” the vertical component of the resistance of the air may be ignored as insensible, and the actual velocity and its horizontal component, or component parallel to the line of sight, are undistinguishable.

Fig. 1.

The equations of motion are now, the co-ordinates x and y being measured in feet,

(26)  ${\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}=-{\mbox{r}}r=-{\frac {gp}{C}},$

(27)  ${\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}=-g.$

The first equation leads, as before, to

(28)  $t=C\left\{T(V)-T(v)\right\},$

(29)  $x=C\left\{S(V)-S(v)\right\},$

The integration of (24) gives

(30)  ${\frac {dy}{dt}}={\mbox{constant}}-gt=g\left({\tfrac {1}{2}}T-t\right),$

if T denotes the whole time of flight from O to the point B (fig. 1), where the trajectory cuts the line of sight; so that ½T is the time to the vertex A, where the shot is flying parallel to OB.

Integrating (27) again,

(31)  $y=g\left({\frac {1}{2}}T-{\frac {1}{2}}t^{2}\right)=3/4gt(Tt)={\frac {1}{2}}gt(T-t);$

and denoting T-t by t', and taking g=32f/s²,

(32)  $y=16tt^{\prime },\,$

which is Colonel Sladen's formula, employed in plotting ordinates of a trajectory.

At the vertex A, where y=H, we have t=t'=½T, so that

(33)  $H={\frac {1}{8}}gT^{2},$

which for practical purposes, taking g=32, is replaced by

(34)  $H=4T^{2},{\mbox{ or }}(2T)^{2}.\,$

Thus, if the time of flight of a shell is 5 sec., the height of the vertex of the trajectory is about 100 ft.; and if the fuse is set to burst the shell one-tenth of a second short of its impact at B, the height of the burst is 7.84, say 8 ft.

The line of sight Ox, considered horizontal in range table results, may be inclined slightly to the horizon, as in shooting up or down a moderate slope, without appreciable modification of (28) and (29), and y or PM is still drawn vertically to meet OB in M.

Given the ballistic coefficient C, the initial velocity V, and a range of R yds. or X=3R ft., the final velocity v is first calculated from (29) by

(35)  $S(v)=S(V)-X/C,\,$

and then the time of flight T by

(36)  $T=C\left\{T(V)-T(v)\right\}.$

Denoting the angle of departure and descent, measured in degrees and from the line of sight OB by φ and β, the total deviation in the range OB is (fig. 1)

(37)  $\delta =\phi +\beta =C\left\{D(V)-D(v)\right\}.$

To share the δ between φ and β, the vertex A is taken as the point of half-time (and therefore beyond half-range, because of the continual diminution of the velocity), and the velocity v₀ at A is calculated from the formula

(38)  $T(v_{0})=T(V)-{\frac {{\frac {1}{2}}T}{C}}={\frac {1}{2}}\left\{T(V)+T(v)\right\};$

and now the degree table for D(v) gives

(39)  $\phi =C\left\{D(V)-D(v_{0})\right\},$

(40)  $\beta =C\left\{D(v_{0})-D(v)\right\},$

This value of φ is the tangent elevation (T.E); the quadrant elevation (Q.E.) is φ−S, where S is the angular depression of the line of sight OB; and if O is h ft. vertical above B, the angle S at a range of R yds. is given by

(41)  $\sin S=h/3R,\,$

or, for a small angle, expressed in minutes, taking the radian as 3438′,

(42)  $S=1146h/R.\,$

So also the angle β must be increased by S to obtain the angle at which the shot strikes a horizontal plane—the water, for instance.

A systematic exercise is given here of the compilation of a range table by calculation with the ballistic table; and it is to be compared with the published official range table which follows.

A discrepancy between a calculated and tabulated result will serve to show the influence of a slight change in the coefficient of reduction n, and the muzzle velocity V.

Example 3.- Determine by calculation with the abridged ballistic table the remaining velocity v, the time of flight t, angle of elevation φ, and descent β of this 6-in. gun at ranges 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 yds., taking the muzzle velocity V=2150 f/s, and a coefficient of reduction n=0.96. [For Table see p.274.]

An important problem is to determine the alteration of elevation for firing up and down a slope. It is found that the alteration of the tangent elevation is almost insensible, but the quadrant elevation requires the addition or subtraction of the angle of sight.

Example.- Find the alteration of elevation required at a range of 3000 yds. in the exchange of fire between a ship and a fort 1200 ft. high, a 12-in. gun being employed on each side, firing a shot weighing 850 lb with velocity 2150 f/s. The complete ballistic table, and the method of high angle fire (see below) must be employed.

Range.

s.

s/C.

S(v).

v.

T(v).

t/C.

t.

T(v0).

v0.

D(v0)

φ/C.

φ.

β/C.

β.

0

0

0

20700·53

2150

28·6891

0·0000

0·000

28·6891

2150

50·9219

0·0000

0·000

0·0000

0·000

500

1500

518

20182·53

1999

28·4399

0·2492

0·720

28·5645

2071

50·8132

0·1087

0·315

0·1135

0·328

1000

3000

1036

19664·53

1862

28·1711

0·5180

1·497

28·4301

1994

50·6913

0·2306

0·666

0·2486

0·718

1500

4500

1554

19146·53

1732

27·8815

0·8076

2·330

28·2853

1918

50·5542

0·3677

1·062

0·4085

1·181

2000

6000

2072

10628·53

1610

27·5728

1·1163

3·225

28·1310

1843

50·4029

0·5190

1·500

0·5989

1·734

Charge ${\Bigg \{}$	weight, 13 ℔ 4 oz.	55·01/0·504.
	gravimetric density,
	nature, cordite, size 30.

${\Bigg |}$

Projectile ${\bigg \{}$	Palliser shot, Shrapnel shell.
	Weight, 100 ℔.

${\Bigg |}$

Muzzle velocity, 2154 f/s.

Nature of mounting, pedestal.

Jump, nil.

Remain- ing Velocity	To strike an object 10 ft. high range must be known to	Slope of Descent.	5′ elevation or depression alters point of impact.		Elevation.		Range.	Fuse scale for T. and P. middle No. 54 Marks I., II., or III.	50% of rounds should fall in.			Time of Flight.	Penetra- tion into Wrought Iron.
			Range.	Laterally or Vertically.					Length.	Breadth.	Height.
f/s	yds.	1 in.	yds.	yds.	°	′	yds.		yds.	yds.	yds.	secs.	in.
2154	. .	. .	. .	0·00	0	0	⁠0	. .	. .	. .	. .	0·00	13·6
2122	1145	687	125	0·14	0	4	100	1/4	. .	0·4	. .	0·16	13·4
2091	635	381	125	0·29	0	9	200	3/4	. .	0·4	. .	0·31	13·2
2061	408	245	125	0·43	0	13	300	1	. .	0·4	. .	0·47	13·0
2032	316	190	125	0·58	0	17	400	11/4	. .	0·4	. .	0·62	12·8
2003	260	156	125	0·72	0	21	500	13/4	. .	0·5	0·2	0·78	12·6
1974	211	127	125	0·87	0	26	600	2	. .	0·5	0·2	0·95	12·4
1946	183	110	125	1·01	0	30	700	21/4	. .	0·5	0·2	1·11	12·2
1909	163	98	125	1·16	0	34	800	23/4	. .	0·5	0·2	1·28	12·0
1883	143	85	125	1·31	0	39	900	3	. .	0·6	0·3	1·44	11·8
1857	130	78	125	1·45	0	43	1000	31/4	. .	0·6	0·3	1·61	11·6
1830	118	71	125	1·60	0	47	1100	33/4	. .	0·6	0·3	1·78	11·4
1803	110	66	125	1·74	0	51	1200	4	. .	0·6	0·3	1·95	11·2
1776	101	61	125	1·89	0	55	1300	41/2	. .	0·7	0·4	2·12	11·0
1749	93	56	125	2·03	0	59	1400	43/4	. .	0·7	0·4	2·30	10·8
1722	86	52	125	2·18	1	3	1500	5	. .	0·7	0·4	2·47	10·6
1695	80	48	125	2·32	1	7	1600	51/2	25	0·8	0·5	2·65	10·5
1669	71	43	125	2·47	1	11	1700	53/4	25	0·9	0·5	2·84	10·3
1642	67	40	100	2·61	1	16	1800	61/4	25	1·0	0·5	3·03	10·1
1616	61	37	100	2·76	1	22	1900	61/2	25	1·1	0·6	3·23	9·9
1591	57	34	100	2·91	1	27	2000	7	25	1·2	0·6	3·41	9·7

The last column in the Range Table giving the inches of penetration into wrought iron is calculated from the remaining velocity by
an empirical formula, as explained in the article Armour Plates.

High Angle and Curved Fire.—“High angle fire,” as defined officially, “is fire at elevations greater than 15°,” and “curved fire is fire from howitzers at all angles of elevation not exceeding 15°”. In these cases the curvature of the trajectory becomes considerable, and the formulae employed in direct fire must be modified; the method generally employed is due to Colonel Siacci of the Italian artillery.

Starting with the exact equations of motion in a resisting medium,

(43)  ${\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}=-r\cos i=-r{\frac {dx}{ds}},$

(44)   ${\frac {d^{2}y}{dt^{2}}}=-r\sin i-g=-r{\frac {dy}{ds}}-g,$

and eliminating r,

(45)   ${\frac {dx}{dt}}{\frac {d^{2}y}{dt^{2}}}-{\frac {dy}{dt}}{\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}=-g{\frac {dx}{dt}},$

and this, in conjunction with

(46)  $\tan i={\frac {dy}{dx}}={\frac {dy}{dt}}{\Bigg /}{\frac {dx}{dt}},$

(47)  $\sec ^{2}i{\frac {di}{dt}}=\left({\frac {dx}{dt}}{\frac {d^{2}y}{dt^{2}}}-{\frac {dy}{dt}}{\frac {d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}}\right){\Bigg /}\left({\frac {dx}{dt}}\right)^{2},$

reduces to

(48)  ${\frac {di}{dt}}=-{\frac {g}{v}}\cos i,{\mbox{ or }}{\frac {d\tan i}{dt}}=-g{\frac {g}{v\cos i}},$

the equation obtained, as in (18), by resolving normally in the trajectory, but di now denoting the increment of i in the increment of time dt.

Denoting dx/dt, the horizontal component of the velocity, by q, so that

(49)  $v\cos i=q,\,$

equation (43) becomes

(50)  $dq/dt=-r\cos i,\,$

and therefore by (48)

(51)  ${\frac {dq}{di}}={\frac {dq}{dt}}{\frac {dt}{di}}={\frac {rv}{g}}$

It is convenient to express r as a function of v in the previous notation

(52)  $Cr=f(v)\,$

and now

(53)  ${\frac {dq}{di}}={\frac {vf(v)}{Cg}},$

an equation connecting q and i.

Now, since v=q sec i

(54)  ${\frac {dt}{dq}}=-C{\frac {\sec i}{f(q\sec i)}},$

and multiplying by dx/dt or q,

(55)  ${\frac {dx}{dq}}=-{\frac {Cq\sec i}{f(q\sec i)}},$

and multiplying by dx/dx or tan i,

(56)  ${\frac {dy}{dq}}=-{\frac {Cq\sec i\tan i}{f(q\sec i)}};$

also

(57)  ${\frac {di}{dq}}={\frac {Cg}{q\sec i.f(q\sec i)}},$

(58)  ${\frac {d\tan i}{dq}}={\frac {Cg\sec i}{q.f(q\sec i)}},$

from which the values of t, x, y, i, and tan i are given by integration with respect to q, when sec i is given as a function of q by means of (51).

Now these integrations are quite intractable, even for a very simple mathematical assumption of the function f(v), say the quadratic or cubic law, f(v)=v²/k or v³/k.

But, as originally pointed out by Euler, the difficulty can be turned if we notice that in the ordinary trajectory of practice the quantities i, cos i, and sec i vary so slowly that they may be replaced by their mean values, η, cos η, and sec η, especially if the trajectory, when considerable, is divided up in the calculation into arcs of small curvature, the curvature of an arc being defined as the angle between the tangents or normals at the ends of the arc.

Replacing then the angle i on the right-hand side of equations (54)–(56) by some mean value η we introduce Siacci’s pseudo-velocity u defined by

(59)  $u=q\sec \eta ,$

so that u is a quasi-component parallel to the mean direction of the tangent, say the direction of the chord of the arc. Integrating from any initial pseudo-velocity U,

(60)  $t=C\int _{u}^{U}{\frac {du}{f(u)}},$

(61)  $x=C\cos \eta \int {\frac {udu}{f(u)}},$

(62)  $y=C\sin \eta \int {\frac {udu}{f(u)}},$

and supposing the inclination i to change from φ to θ radians over the arc.

(63)  $\phi -\theta =Cg\cos \eta \int {\frac {du}{uf(u)}},$

(64)  $\tan \phi -\tan \theta =Cg\sec \eta \int {\frac {du}{uf(u)}}.$

But according to the definition of the functions T, S, I and D of the ballistic table, employed for direct fire, with u written for v,

(65)  $\int _{u}^{U}{\frac {du}{f(u)}}=\int {\frac {du}{gp}}$	$=T(U)-T(u),\,$
(66)  $\int _{u}^{U}{\frac {udu}{f(u)}}$	$=S(U)-S(u),\,$
(67)  $\int _{u}^{U}{\frac {gdu}{uf(u)}}$	$=I(U)-I(u),\,$

and therefore

(68)  $t=C\left\lbrack T(U)-T(u)\right\rbrack ,$

(69)  $x=C\cos \eta \left\lbrack S(U)-S(u)\right\rbrack ,$

(70)  $y=C\sin \eta \left\lbrack S(U)-S(u)\right\rbrack ,$

(71)  $\phi -\theta =C\cos \eta \left\lbrack I(U)-I(u)\right\rbrack ,$

(72)  $\tan \phi -\tan \theta =C\sec \eta \left\lbrack I(U)-I(u)\right\rbrack ,$

while, expressed in degrees,

(73)  $\phi ^{\circ }-\theta ^{\circ }=C\cos \eta \left\lbrack D(U)-D(u)\right\rbrack ,$

The equations (66)-(71) are Siacci’s, slightly modified by General Mayevski; and now in the numerical applications to high angle fire we can still employ the ballistic table for direct fire.

It will be noticed that η cannot be exactly the same mean angle in all these equations; but if η is the same in (69) and (70),

(74)  $y/x=\tan \eta ,\,$

so that η is the inclination of the chord of the arc of the trajectory, as in Niven’s method of calculating trajectories (Proc. R. S., 1877): but this method requires η to be known with accuracy, as 1% variation in η causes more than 1% variation in tan η.

The difficulty is avoided by the use of Siacci’s altitude-function A or A(u), by which y/x can be calculated without introducing sin η or tan η but in which η occurs only in the form cos η or sec η, which varies very slowly for moderate values of η, so that η need not be calculated with any great regard for accuracy, the arithmetic mean 1/2(φ+θ) of φ and θ being near enough for η over any arc φ-θ of moderate extent.

Now taking equation (72), and replacing tan θ, as a variable final tangent of an angle, by tan i or dy/dx,

(75)  $\tan \phi -{\frac {dy}{dx}}=C\sec \eta \left\lbrack I(U)-I(u)\right\rbrack ,$

and integrating with respect to x over the arc considered,

(76)  $x\tan \phi -y=C\sec \eta \left\lbrack xI(U)-\int _{0}^{\phi }I(u)dx\right\rbrack .$

But

(77)  $\int _{0}^{x}I(u)dx$	$=\int _{u}^{U}I(u){\frac {dx}{du}}du$
	$=C\cos \eta \int _{u}^{U}I(u){\frac {udu}{gf(u)}}$
	$=C\cos \eta \left\lbrack A(U)-A(u)\right\rbrack$

in Siacci’s notation; so that the altitude-function A must be calculated by summation from the finite difference ΔA, where

(78)  $\Delta A=I(u){\frac {u\Delta u}{gp}}=I(u)\Delta S,$

or else by an integration when it is legitimate to assume that f(v =v^m/k in an interval of velocity in which m may be supposed constant.

Dividing again by x, as given in (76),

(79)  $\tan \phi -{\frac {y}{x}}=C\sec \eta \left\lbrack I(U)-{\frac {A(U)-A(u)}{S(U)-S(u)}}\right\rbrack$

from which y/x can be calculated, and thence y.

In the application of Siacci’s method to the calculation of a trajectory in high angle fire by successive arcs of small curvature, starting at the beginning of an arc at an angle φ, with velocity vφ, the curvature of the arc φ—θ is first settled upon, and now

(80)  $\eta ={\frac {1}{2}}(\phi +\theta )$

is a good first approximation for η.

Now calculate the pseudo-velocity u_φ from

(81)  $u_{\phi }=v_{\phi }\cos \phi \sec \eta ,\,$

and then, from the given values of φ, and θ, calculate u_θ from either of the formulae of (72) or (73):—

(82)  $I(u_{\theta })-I(u_{\phi })-{\frac {\tan \phi -\tan \theta }{C\sec \eta }},$

(83)  $D(u_{\theta })=D(u_{\phi })-{\frac {\phi ^{\circ }\theta ^{circ}}{C\cos \eta }}.$

Then with the suffix notation to denote the beginning and end of the arc φ–θ,

(84)  ${}_{\phi }t_{\theta }=C\left\lbrack T(u_{\phi })-T(u_{\theta })\right\rbrack ,$

(85)  ${}_{\phi }x_{\theta }=C\cos \eta \left\lbrack S(u_{\phi })-S(u_{\theta })\right\rbrack .$

(86)  ${}_{\phi }\left({\frac {y}{x}}\right){}_{\theta }=\tan \phi -C\sec \eta \left\lbrack I(u_{\phi })-{\frac {\Delta A}{\Delta S}}\right\rbrack ;$

Δ now denoting any finite tabular difference of the function between the initial and final (pseudo-) velocity.

Fig. 2.

Also the velocity v_θ at the end of the arc is given by

(87)  $v_{\theta }=u_{\theta }\sec \theta \cos \eta .\,$

Treating this final velocity v_θ and angle θ as the initial velocity v_φ and angle φ, of the next arc, the calculation proceeds as before (fig. 2).

In the long range high angle fire the shot ascends to such a height that the correction for the tenuity of the air becomes important, and the curvature φ—θ of an arc should be so chosen that φy_θ the height ascended, should be limited to about 1000 ft., equivalent to a fall of 1 inch in the barometer or 3% diminution in the tenuity factor τ.

A convenient rule has been given by Captain James M. Ingalls, U.S.A., for approximating to a high angle trajectory in a single arc, which assumes that the mean density of the air may be taken as the density at two-thirds of the estimated height of the vertex; the rule is founded on the fact that in an unresisted parabolic trajectory the average height of the shot is two-thirds the height of the vertex, as illustrated in a jet of water, or in a stream of bullets from a Maxim gun.

The longest recorded range is that given in 1888 by the 9·2-in. gun to a shot weighing 380 ℔ fired with velocity 2375 f/s at elevation 40°; the range was about 12 m., with a time for flight of about 64 sec., shown in fig. 2.

A calculation of this trajectory is given by Lieutenant A. H. Wolley-Dod, R.A., in the Proceedings R.A. Institution, 1888, employing Siacci’s method and about twenty arcs; and Captain Ingalls, by assuming a mean tenuity-factor τ=0·68, corresponding to a height of about 2 m., on the estimate that the shot would reach a height of 3 m., was able to obtain a very accurate result, working in two arcs over the whole trajectory, up to the vertex and down again (Ingalls, Handbook of Ballistic Problems).

Siacci’s altitude-function is useful in direct fire, for giving immediately the angle of elevation φ, required for a given range of R yds. or X ft., between limits V and v of the velocity, and also the angle of descent β.

In direct fire the pseudo-velocities U and u, and the real velocities V and v, are undistinguishable, and sec η, may be replaced by unity so that, putting y=0 in (79),

(88)  $\tan \phi =C\left\lbrack I(V)-{\frac {\Delta A}{\Delta S}}\right\rbrack .$

Also,

(89)  $\tan \phi -\tan \beta =C\left\lbrack I(V)-L(V)\right\rbrack \,$

so that

(90)  $\tan \beta =C\left\lbrack {\frac {\Delta A}{\Delta S}}-I(v)\right\rbrack ,$

or, as (88) and (90) may be written for small angles,

(91)  $\sin 2\phi =2C\left\lbrack I(V)-{\frac {\Delta A}{\Delta S}}\right\rbrack ,$

(92)  $\sin 2\beta =2C\left\lbrack {\frac {\Delta A}{\Delta S}}-I(v)\right\rbrack .$

To simplify the work, so as to look out the value of sin 2φ, without the intermediate calculation of the remaining velocity v, a double-entry table has been devised by Captain Braccialini Scipione (Problemi del Tiro, Roma, 1883), and adapted to yd., ft., in. and ℔ units by A. G. Hadcock, late R.A., and published in the Proc. R.A. Institution, 1898, and in Gunnery Tables, 1898.

In this table

(93)	sin 2φ＝Ca,

where a is a function tabulated for the two arguments, V the initial velocity, and R/C the reduced range in yards.

The table is too long for insertion here. The results for φ and β, as calculated for the range tables above, are also given there for comparison.

Drift.—An elongated shot fired from a rifled gun does not move in a vertical plane, but as if the mean plane of the trajectory was inclined to the true vertical at a small angle, 2° or 3°; so that the shot will hit the mark aimed at if the back sight is tilted to the vertical at this angle δ, called the permanent angle of deflection (see Sights).

This effect is called drift and the reason of it is not yet understood very clearly.

It is evidently a gyroscopic effect, being reversed in direction by a change from a right to a left-handed twist of rifling, and being increased by an increase of rotation of the shot.

The axis of an elongated shot would move parallel to itself only if fired in a vacuum; but in air the couple due to a sidelong motion tends to place the axis at right angles to the tangent of the trajectory, and acting on a rotating body causes the axis to precess about the tangent. At the same time the frictional drag damps the nutation and causes the axis of the shot to follow the tangent of the trajectory very closely, the point of the shot being seen to be slightly above and to the right of the tangent, with a right-handed twist. The effect is as if there was a mean sidelong thrust w tan δ on the shot from left to right in order to deflect the plane of the trajectory at angle δ to the vertical. But no formula has yet been invented, derived on theoretical principles from the physical data, which will assign by calculation a definite magnitude to δ.

An effect similar to drift is observable at tennis, golf, base-ball and cricket; but this effect is explainable by the inequality of pressure due to a vortex of air carried along by the rotating ball, and the deviation is in the opposite direction of the drift observed in artillery practice, so artillerists are still awaiting theory and crucial experiment.

After all care has been taken in laying and pointing, in accordance with the rules of theory and practice, absolute certainty of hitting the same spot every time is unattainable, as causes of error exist which cannot be eliminated, such as variations in the air and in the muzzle-velocity, and also in the steadiness of the shot in flight.

To obtain an estimate of the accuracy of a gun, as much actual practice as is available must be utilized for the calculation in accordance with the laws of probability of the 50% zones shown in the range table (see Probability.)

II. Interior Ballistics.

The investigation of the relations connecting the pressure, volume and temperature of the powder-gas inside the bore of the gun, of the work realized by the expansion of the powder, of the dynamics of the movement of the shot up the bore, and of the stress set up in the material of the gun, constitutes the branch of interior ballistics.

Fig. 3.

A gun may be considered a simple thermo-dynamic machine or heat-engine which does its work in a single stroke, and does not act in a series of periodic cycles as an ordinary steam or gas-engine.

An indicator diagram can be drawn for a gun (fig. 3) as for a steam-engine, representing graphically by a curve CPD the relation between the volume and pressure of the powder-gas; and in addition the curves AQE of energy e, Av V of velocity v, and At T of time t can be plotted or derived, the velocity and energy at the muzzle B being denoted by V and E.

Fig. 4.

After a certain discount for friction and the recoil of the gun, the net work realized by the powder-gas as the shot advances AM is represented by the area ACPM, and this is equated to the kinetic energy e of the shot, in foot-tons,

(1)  $e={\frac {w}{2240}}\left(1+{\frac {4k^{2}}{d^{2}}}\tan ^{2}\delta \right){\frac {v^{2}}{2g}},$

in which the factor 4(k²/d²)tan²δ represents the fraction due to the rotation of the shot, of diameter d and axial radius of gyration k, and δ represents the angle of the rifling; this factor may be ignored in the subsequent calculations as small, less than 1%.

The mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) in tons per sq. in. is represented in fig. 3 by the height AH, such that the rectangle AHKB is equal to the area APDB; and the M.E.P. multiplied by 1/4πd², the cross-section of the bore in square inches, gives in tons the mean effective thrust of the powder on the base of the shot and multiplied again by l, the length in inches of the travel AB of the shot up the bore, gives the work realized in inch-tons; which work is thus equal to the M.E.P. multiplied by 1/4πd²l=B−C, the volume in cubic inches of the rifled part AB of the bore, the difference between B the total volume of the bore and C the volume of the powder-chamber.

Equating the muzzle-energy and the work in foot-tons

(2)  $E={\frac {w}{2240.}}{\frac {V^{2}}{2g}}={\frac {B-C}{12}}\times M.E.P.$

(3)  $M.E.P.={\frac {w}{2240}}{\frac {V^{2}}{2g}}{\frac {12}{B-C}}.$

Working this out for the 6-in., gun of the range table, taking L=216 in., we find B−C=6100 cub. in., and the M.E.P. is about 6·4 tons per sq. in.

But the maximum pressure may exceed the mean in the ratio of 2 or 3 to 1, as shown in fig. 4, representing graphically the result of Sir Andrew Noble’s experiments with a 6-in, gun, capable of being lengthened to 100 calibres or 50 ft. (Proc. R.S., June 1894).

On the assumption of uniform pressure up the bore, practically realizable in a Zalinski pneumatic dynamite gun, the pressure-curve would be the straight line HK of fig. 3 parallel to AM; the energy-curve AQE would be another straight line through A; the velocity-curve AvV, of which the ordinate v is as the square root of the energy, would be a parabola; and the acceleration of the shot being constant, the time-curve AtT will also be a similar parabola.

If the pressure falls off uniformly, so that the pressure-curve is a straight line PDF sloping downwards and cutting AM in F, then the energy-curve will be a parabola curving downwards, and the velocity-curve can be represented by an ellipse, or circle with centre F and radius FA; while the time-curve will be a sinusoid.

Fig. 5.

But if the pressure-curve is a straight line F′CP sloping upwards, cutting AM behind A in F', the energy-curve will be a parabola curving upwards, and the velocity-curve a hyperbola with center at F′.

These theorems may prove useful in preliminary calculations where the pressure-curve is nearly straight; but, in the absence of any observable law, the area of the pressure-curve must be read off by a planimeter, or calculated by Simpson’s rule, as an indicator diagram.

To measure the pressure experimentally in the bore of a gun, the crusher-gauge is used as shown in fig. 6, nearly full size; it records the maximum pressure by the compression of a copper cylinder in its interior; it may be placed in the powder-chamber, or fastened in the base of the shot.

In Sir Andrew Noble’s researches a number of plugs were inserted in the side of the experimental gun, reaching to the bore and carrying crusher-gauges, and also chronographic appliances which registered the passage of the shot in the same manner as the electric screens in Bashforth’s experiments; thence the velocity and energy of the shot was inferred, to serve as an independent control of the crusher-gauge records (figs. 4 and 5).

As a preliminary step to the determination of the pressure in the bore of a gun, it is desirable to measure the pressure obtained by exploding a charge of powder in a closed vessel, varying the weight of the charge and thereby the density of the powder-gas.

The earliest experiments of this nature are due to Benjamin Robins in 1743 and Count Rumford in 1792; and their method has been revived by Dr Kellner, War Department chemist, who employed the steel spheres of bicycle ball-bearings as safety-valves, loaded to register the pressure at which the powder-gas will blow off, and thereby check the indications of the crusher-gauge (Proc. R.S., March 1895).

Fig. 6.

Chevalier d’Arcy, 1760, also experimented on the pressure of powder and the velocity of the bullet in a musket barrel; this he accomplished by shortening the barrel successively, and measuring the velocity obtained by the ballistic pendulum; thus reversing Noble’s procedure of gradually lengthening the gun.

But the most modern results employed with gunpowder are based on the experiments of Noble and Abel (Phil. Trans., 1875–1880–1892–1894 and following years).

A charge of powder, or other explosive, of varying weight P lb, is fired in an explosion-chamber (fig. 7, scale about 1/5) of which the volume C, cub. in., is known accurately, and the pressure p, tons per sq. in., was recorded by a crusher-gauge (fig. 6). The result is plotted in figs. 8 and 9, in a curve showing the relation between p and D the gravimetric density, which is the specific gravity of the P ℔ of powder when filling the volume C, cub. in, in a state of gas; or between p and v, the reciprocal of D, which may be called the gravimetric volume (G. V.), being the ratio of the volume of the gas to the volume of an equal weight of water.

Fig. 7.

The results are also embodied in the following Table:—

Table 1.

G.D.	G.V.	Pressure in Tons per sq. in.
		Pebble Powder.	Cordite.
0·05	20·00	0·855	3·00
⁠6	16·66	1·00	3·80
⁠8	12·50	1·36	5·40
0·10	10·00	1·76	7·10
⁠12	8·33	2·06	8·70
⁠14	7·14	2·53	10·50
⁠15	6·66	2·73	11·36
⁠16	6·25	2·96	12·30
⁠18	5·55	3·33	14·20
⁠20	5·00	3·77	16·00
⁠22	4·54	4·26	17·90
⁠24	4·17	4·66	19·80
⁠25	4·00	4·88	20·63
⁠26	3·84	5·10	21·75
⁠30	3·33	6·07	26·00
⁠35	2·85	7·35	31·00
⁠40	2·50	8·73	36·53
⁠45	2·22	10·23	42·20
⁠50	2·00	11·25	48·66
⁠55	1·81	13·62	55·86
⁠60	1·66	15·55	63·33

The term gravimetric density (G.D.) is peculiar to artillerists; it is required to distinguish between the specific gravity (S. G.) of the powder filling a given volume in a state of gas, and the specific gravity of the separate solid grain or cord of powder.

Thus, for instance, a lump of solid lead of given S. G., when formed into a charge of lead shot composed of equal spherules closely packed, will have a G.D. such that

(4)  G.D. of charge of lead shot/S.G. of lump of solid lead√2＝0·7403;

while in the case of a bundle of cylindrical sticks of cordite,

(5)  G.D. of charge of cordite/S.G. of stick of cordite＝1/6π√3＝0·9067;

PRESSURES OBSERVED IN A CLOSED VESSEL WITH
VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES

Fig. 8.

At the standard temperature of 62° F. the volume of the gallon of 10 ℔ of water is 277·3 cub. in.; or otherwise, 1 cub. ft. or 1728 cub. in. of water at this temperature weighs 62·35 ℔, and therefore 1 ℔ of water bulks 1728÷62·35=27·73 cub. in.

Thus if a charge of P ℔ of powder is placed in a chamber of volume C cub. in., the

(6)  $G.D.=27\cdot 73P/C,\quad G.V.=C/27\cdot 73P.\,$

Sometimes the factor 27·68 is employed, corresponding to a density of water of about 62·4 ℔ per cub. ft., and a temperature 12° C., or 54° F.

With metric units, measuring P in kg., and C in litres, the G.D.=P/C, G.V.=C/F, no factor being required.

From the Table 1., or by quadrature of the curve in fig. 9, the work E in foot-tons realized by the expansion of 1 ℔ of the powder from one gravimetric volume to another is inferred; for if the average pressure is p tons per sq. in., while the gravimetric volume changes from v-1/2Δv to v+1/2Δv, a change of volume of 27·73 Δv cub. in., the work done is 27·73 p Δv inch-tons, or

(7)  $\Delta E=2\cdot 31p\Delta v{\mbox{ foot-tons}};$

and the differences ΔE being calculated from the observed values of p, a summation, as in the ballistic tables, would give E in a tabular form, and conversely from a table of E in terms of v, we can infer the value of p.

On drawing off a little of the gas from the explosion vessel it was found that a gramme of cordite-gas at 0° C. and standard atmospheric pressure occupied 700 ccs., while the same gas compressed into 5 ccs. at the temperature of explosion had a pressure of 16 tons per sq. in., or 16×2240÷14·7=2440 atmospheres, or 14·7 ℔ per sq. in.; one ton per sq. in. being in round numbers 150 atmospheres.

The absolute centigrade temperature T is thence inferred from the gas equation

(8)  $R=pv/T=p_{0}v_{0}/273,$

which, with p=2440, v=5, p₀=1 v₀=700, makes T=4758, a temperature of 4485° C. or 8105° F.

PRESSURE IN A CLOSED VESSEL OBSERVED AND CALCULATED

Fig. 9.

In the heading of the 6-in, range table we find the description of the charge.

Charge: weight 13 ℔ 4 oz,; gravimetric density 55·01/0·504; nature, cordite, size 30.

So that P=13·25, the G. D.=0·504, the upper figure 55·01 denoting the specific volume of the charge measured in cubic inches per ℔, filling the chamber in a state of gas, the product of the two numbers 55·01 and 0·504 being 27·73; and the chamber capacity C=13·25×55·01=730 cub. in., equivalent to 25·8 in. or 2·15 ft. length of bore, now called the equivalent length of the chamber (E.L.C.).

If the shot was not free to move, the closed chamber pressure due to the explosion of the charge at this G.D. (=0·5) would be nearly 49 tons per sq. in., much too great to be safe.

But the shot advances during the combustion of the cordite, and the chief problem in interior ballistics is to adjust the G.D, of the charge to the weight of the shot so that the advance of the shot during the combustion of the charge should prevent the maximum pressure from exceeding a safe limit, as shown by the maximum ordinate of the pressure curve CPD in fig. 3.

Suppose this limit is fixed at 16 tons per sq. in., corresponding in Table 1. to a G.D., 0·2; the powder-gas will now occupy a volume b=5/2C=1825 cub. in., corresponding to an advance of the shot 3/2×2·15=3·225 ft.

Assuming an average pressure of 8 tons per sq. in., the shot will have acquired energy 8×1/4πd²×3·225=730 foot-tons, and a velocity about v=1020 f/s so that the time over the 3·225 ft. at an average velocity 510 f/s is about 0·0063 sec.

Comparing this time with the experimental value of the time occupied by the cordite in burning, a start is made for a fresh estimate and a closer approximation.

Assuming, however, that the agreement is close enough for practical requirement, the combustion of the cordite may be considered complete at this stage P, and in the subsequent expansion it is assumed that the gas obeys an adiabatic law in which the pressure varies inversely as some m^th power of the volume.

The work done in expanding to infinity from p tons per sq. in. at volume b cub. in. is then pb/(m−1) inch-tons, or to any volume B cub. in. is

(9)  ${\frac {pb}{m-1}}\left\lbrack 1-\left({\frac {b}{\mbox{B}}}\right)^{m-1}\right\rbrack .$

It is found experimentally that m=1·2 is a good average value to take for cordite; so now supposing the combustion of the charge of the 6-in, is complete in 0·0063 sec., when p=16 tons per sq. in., b=1825 cub. in., and that the gas expands adiabatically up to the muzzle, where

(10)  B/b＝216+25·8/2·5×25·8＝3·75,

we find the work realized by expansion is 2826 foot-tons, sufficient to increase the velocity from 1020 to 2250 f/s at the muzzle.

This muzzle velocity is about 5% greater than the 2150 f/s of the range table, so on these considerations we may suppose about 10% of work is lost by friction in the bore; this is expressed by saying that the factor of effect is f=0·9.

The experimental determination of the time of burning under the influence of the varying pressure and density, and the size of the grain, is thus of great practical importance, as thereby it is possible to estimate close limits to the maximum pressure that will be reached in the bore of a gun, and to design the chamber so that the G.D. of the charge may be suitable for the weight and acceleration of the shot. Empirical formulas based on practical experience are employed for an approximation to the result.

A great change has come over interior ballistics in recent years, as the old black gunpowder has been abandoned in artillery after holding the field for six hundred years. It is replaced by modern explosives such as those indicated on fig. 4, capable of giving off a very much larger volume of gas at a greater temperature and pressure, more than threefold as seen on fig. 8, so that the charge may be reduced in proportion, and possessing the military advantage of being nearly smokeless. (See Explosives)

The explosive cordite is adopted in the British service; it derives the name from its appearance as cord in short lengths, the composition being squeezed in a viscous state through the hole in a die, and the cordite is designated in size by the number of hundredths of an inch in the diameter of the hole. Thus the cordite, size 30, of the range table has been squeezed through a hole 0·30 in. diameter.

The thermochemical properties of the constituents of an explosive will assign an upper limit to the volume, temperature and pressure of the gas produced by the combustion; but much experiment is required in addition. Sir Andrew Noble has published some of his results in the Phil. Trans., 1905–1906 and following years.

Authorities.—Tartaglia, Nova Scientia (1537); Galileo (1638); Robins, New Principles of Gunnery (1743); Euler (trans. by Hugh Brown), The True Principles of Gunnery (1777); Didion, Hélie, Hugoniot, Vallier, Baills, &c., Balistique (French); Siacci, Balistica (Italian); Mayevski, Zabudski, Balistique (Russian); La Llave, Ollero, Mata, &c., Balistica (Spanish); Bashforth, The Motion of Projectiles (1872); The Bashforth Chronograph (1890); Ingalls, Exterior and Interior Ballistics, Handbook of Problems in Direct and Indirect Fire; Bruff, Ordnance and Gunnery; Cranz, Compendium der Ballistik (1898); The Official Text-Book of Gunnery (1902); Charbonnier, Balistique (1905); Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery (1907).  (A. G. G.)