Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine/Chapter 10

by Edward Hull

CHAPTER X.

THE WÂDY EL ARABAH.

The Wâdy el Arabah, which we were now about to traverse, is by far the largest and most striking depression in Arabia Petræa. It is called in the Bible “the Wilderness of Zin,” and was traversed by the children of Israel throughout a large portion of its extent; first, according to the views of some authors, when going up to Kadesh Barnea to take possession of the Promised Land, and afterwards, when disastrously driven back before their enemies, and doomed to wander in the great desert of Arabia during a space of nearly forty years. They retraced their steps, again, at the end of thirty-eight years, on the second visit to Kadesh Barnea, and before the encampment in the plain at the western base of Mount Hor, where Aaron died; and lastly, when obliged to circumvent Edom and Moab, on their way to the Promised Land by the Jordan Valley.

The great valley of the Arabah was first brought to the notice of Europeans by Robinson and Burckhardt,^[1] who traced up the course of the valley from the Gulf of Akabah to the Lake Asphaltites. But it has also been visited and described to a greater or less extent by subsequent explorers, amongst whom may be mentioned Laborde, Lord Lindsay, Dean Stanley, Dr. Wilson, Professor Palmer, and, more recently, M. Vignes, in connection with the expedition carried out by the Due de Luynes.^[2] These travellers have shown that this valley is the physical prolongation of that great depression which, commencing at the north with the valleys of the Litany and the Orontis, stretches southwards along the course of the Jordan, the Salt Sea, and The Ghôr, through the El Arabah itself into the Gulf of Akabah; — a depression justly pronounced by Humboldt to be the most remarkable on the face of the earth. This physical continuity is, as may be inferred, due to similarity in the physical conditions. Throughout the whole extent of the tract described, the strata of the earth's crust have been fractured and vertically displaced, so that those on the eastern side of the fracture have been relatively elevated, or (in other words) those on the western relatively lowered. This fracture is known amongst geologists as a “fault,” and in consequence of the displacement above stated, the rocks and formations on opposite sides of this depression do not in general correspond to each other.

The existence of this great line of fracture along the depression of the Jordan Valley and of the Arabah has been recognised by Hitchcock,^[3] Tristram,^[4] Wilson,^[5] and Lartet,^[6] who has in the clearest manner demonstrated the physical results of the displacement in the region of the Salt Sea and Jordan Valley. These observations I have had an opportunity of continuing throughout the whole length of the Wâdy el Arabah, and I have succeeded in tracing the line of this fracture from The Ghôr to the Gulf of Akabah, throughout a distance of about 120 miles.^[7] The details of the geological structure of this tract will be published elsewhere; but I may here state that the line of fault generally runs along the eastern side of the valley, and close to the base of the mountains of granite and porphyry, where its position has been determined at frequent intervals by the broken and disconnected stratification. The general direction of the fault is N. 10° E. A general section across the centre of the valley from west to east, such as that given in the adjoining page (Fig. 7), will serve to explain the relations of the formations on either side, and show the effects of the break and displacement in producing the striking contrast in the position of the formations, and in the character of the scenery, on opposite sides of the valley.

From this section it will be seen that the limestone (L) of the table-land of the Tîh, which comes down to the valley and forms its floor underneath the superficial gravel, is broken off against the granite and porphyry (G.P.) of the opposite side; while the limestone itself is lifted vertically into

Fig. 7.—General Section across the W. el Arabah to illustrate its Geological Structure.

the high plateau of Edom (L), the red sandstone formation (S) being interposed.

The great leading fracture above described frequently sends forth branch fractures to the right, which, in some cases but not always, follow the directions of the valleys. There are others also parallel to it; and amongst the most remarkable of these is one traversed by the Haj Road, on descending from the Tîh towards the head of the Gulf of Akabah, already described (Fig. 6, p. 68). This is the leading fracture on the western side, and enters the gulf near Ras el Musry. The ridge of reddish granite to the east of the fault is seamed by dykes of deep red porphyry and basalt, crossing each other at angles of about 60°, cutting the rock into “lozenge-shaped” sections, somewhat like the vertebræ of a backbone. The ridge stretches from Ras el Musry northwards for about ten miles. At its eastern base, by the waters of the gulf, was in all probability situated Ezion Geber, and it may be presumed that the name “the backbone of a giant,” was taken from the ridge which rose so boldly and massively behind the walls of the city.^[8]

When describing the coasts of the Gulf of Suez, I had occasion to refer to the evidence of the recent elevation of the sea-bed, so that gravel and sand, with shells and corals of species still living in the adjoining waters, are to be found at levels up to 200 feet above the present surface. This elevation is not local, and may be supposed to have influenced the whole region of Arabia Petræa, and therefore the shores of the Gulf of Akabah. Accordingly, accompanied by my son, I made careful search for shells in the gravels of the valley, and not without success. The bed of the valley, sloping from the sea-margin up to the base of the mountains behind Akabah, is formed of loose gravel, and in this we found, ere leaving our camp, examples of univalves, amongst which was a Murex, several bivalves, an operculum, together with pieces of coral. These occurred at a level of from 80 to 90 feet above the sea; but it could be seen that the gravel in which they occurred sloped upwards to the base of the ridge at a height of about 200 feet, so that the ridge must be considered to have once formed the rocky margin of the gulf itself. The following day both Hart and myself found shells (Cardium, Trochus, &c.) and corals near our camp, at an elevation of 130 feet, and there was no reason to doubt that they might have been found even at higher levels up the valley. From this it was clear that during the time that the shores of the Gulf of Suez were depressed 200 feet (or more) lower than at present, those of the Gulf of Akabah experienced a like submergence. This raised beach had also been recognised by Mr. Milne, who estimated the rise of the land at 40 feet.^[9] From the above account, however, it will be seen the real amount of elevation has been much greater.

Our course during the next two days lay along the Arabah Valley northwards, during which we made short excursions to the right and left. The mountains of red porphyry and granite, seamed by numerous dykes, towered majestically on the right; and under the rays of the setting sun were lighted up with rich tints of red and purple. On the left the cliffs of sandstone, surmounted by others of limestone, formed the abrupt margin of the Tîh plateau. During this time we had opportunities of becoming acquainted with our new escort, under the command of Sheikh Ali. It was soon apparent that our Alowîn were inferior to the Towára (whom the former affected to look down upon as not true Bedawins at all), both in physical development and in sagacity. Generally speaking, our Alowîn were small in stature, nearly black, a half-starved, smoke-dried set, clad in rags or dirty garments; in a word, a gang of ragamuffins! My own camel-driver was a poor half-witted fellow, who gave me much trouble, and was quite unreliable at a pinch. He was a sorry substitute for my well-built, intelligent, and lively Sala; though, to do him justice, he was most anxious to please; and when, some days later, I had to get him exchanged for another, he was dreadfully downcast.

The entrance to the Wâdy Redadi, about 12 miles north of the shores of the gulf, is remarkable for the castellated and pinnacled forms of the limestone cliff, of which Gordon took a photograph. In this district game of various kinds appears to abound. Sheikh Ali told us that ibexes were numerous amongst the mountains on the east side, and gazelles, hares, and partridges were observed by most of our party. The gazelles, however, were so shy that it was almost impossible to get within shot of them. Hart noticed one undisturbed, and was preparing to stalk it, but just as he was approaching within range his camel began to bellow, and he saw his gazelle no more! Laurence also had a close view of a magnificent eagle which he estimated must have been 8 feet from tip to tip of wing. But although it kept soaring above him for some time, it was ever out of gunshot. The bird was probably attracted by a lamb which was following our camp.

I may here give a general sketch of the geological character of the Wâdy el Arabah throughout its length, which will enable the reader the better to understand the sequel, and prevent unnecessary repetition.

Fig. 8.—Jebel Nachaleagh (or Jebel Umm Kâmel) and the Edomite Mountains near Wâdy Abu Berka, as seen from the western side of the Wâdy el Arabah. Cliffs of "Desert Sandstone" resting on granite and porphyry, and repeated by faults.

I have already spoken of the general contrast between the two sides. The eastern side is the grander and more striking of the two, except close to the Gulf of Akabah, where both sides are formed of granite and porphyry, rising into bold and rugged ridges. On the western side these rocks soon pass below beds of sandstone, followed by others of limestone, which break off in steep escarpments with grand headlands and bastions. There is a slight dip to the northwards, which ultimately brings the limestone down into the plain opposite Ain Gharandel. Henceforth there is a double terrace on the western side, and the strata stretch away indefinitely into the high table-land of the Till. At distant intervals these terraces are broken into by winding valleys, which give access to the interior of the table-land. On the eastern side the mountains of granite and porphyry behind Akabah, intensely red in colour, so as to give rise to the name of "Jebel el Nur" (or mountains of fire), gradually decline in elevation northwards, and several outliers of the Desert Sandstone are seen capping the higher elevations of the older rocks towards the head of the Wâdy Turbân. Soon afterwards, as we proceed northwards, the sandstone formation descends to lower levels, breaking off in abrupt walls and precipices in the districts of the Wâdies Gharandel and Dalâghah, and forming the escarpment of Jebel Haroun (Mount Hor), which towers conspicuously above all the other heights. Farther in the distance to the east, the light grey and brownish ridge of Jebel Zibbeyagh, forming the margin of the limestone table-land of Edom, may be seen at an elevation of about 3,000 feet above the plain. The limestone begins immediately east of the Wâdy Mâsa, behind Petra, forming the upper portion of the ridge east of this celebrated valley. In this district, however, the Desert Sandstone sometimes forms a double or treble escarpment, owing to the existence of large faults by which the strata are successively repeated, as shown in the view of J. Nachaleagh (Fig. 8).

This general succession, modified by changes in the dip, and by faulting, is continued all the way northwards to the eastern side of The Ghôr, and along the shores of the Salt Sea. At the base of the escarpment are the red sandstone cliffs, sometimes resting (as at Es Safieh) on a foundation of older crystalline rocks, and extending up the flanks of the escarpment to an elevation of 2,000 feet above the Salt Sea. To these succeed soft sandstones of variegated colours, probably belonging to the "Nubian Sandstone" formation surmounted by the Cretaceous limestone of the table-land, which stretches far away eastward into the Syrian Desert, the haunt of nomadic tribes.

The surface of the Wâdy el Arabah is variously covered by loam, gravel, and blown sands, which are often piled up in great dunes covering large areas, and form a great obstacle to travellers. Occasionally the limestone rock appears in isolated bosses or ridges, as is the case along part of the watershed about 45 miles north of Akabah. There are no continuous rivers throughout; and the floods which from time to time descend from the glens, which open out on either hand, are speedily absorbed, or evaporated, on entering the plain. It is hence difficult to conceive how this great valley, which is sometimes seven or eight miles in width, especially near its centre, could have been excavated and levelled down, unless the action of the rivers and streams of the bordering hills had originally been supplemented by the levelling action of the sea waves on the south, and of the inland waters of a great lake on the north, of the watershed. As I have already shown, there is direct evidence that the waters of the Gulf of Akabah originally extended to a level at least 200 feet higher than at present; and I shall presently give proof that those of the Salt Sea were at a level at least as high as those of the Mediterranean, or 1,300 feet above the present surface of the Salt Sea.^[10] If this be so, it is highly probable that at a still earlier period, when the whole region was being elevated out of the ocean, the waters of the two seas met from either side of the present saddle, from 45 to 50 miles north of the Gulf of Akabah.

Shortly before noon on the 5th December we reached the wells known as Ain el Ghudyan (Fig 9), which have been identified, with very questionable accuracy, with the position of Kadesh Barnea.^[11] The wells are situated on some flat and marshy ground; one of large size, at which the camels had a good drink, the other smaller and surrounded by stone pavements. We were badly off for a supply of water for future use, but there was nothing with which to draw, though the well was not more than 8 or 10 feet deep. At length, after much disputation, and the promise of bakhsheesh, a tall

Arab divested himself of his light garments, and jumped down the sides laughing and shouting. The waterskins were thrown down to him by the others, who joined in the chorus, and our water barrels were soon filled. On Thursday, 6th December, we encamped near the centre of the Arabah Valley in an oasis of green shrubs surrounded by sandhills. The general features of the valley had quite changed. On the east the grand terraces of red sandstone of Jebel Zibbeyagh and Jebel Nachaleagh, surmounting their granitic foundations, rose to elevations of 2,000 or 3,000 feet, and along the deep depression of the Wâdy Gharandel formed massive walls, with horizontal courses of natural masonry. But on the western side the almost continuous limestone escarpment had sunk down and disappeared, and a great expanse of sandy plain stretched away for many miles towards the north-west, opening an uninterrupted entrance into the region of the Tîh. This expanse, however, was partially broken by a low ridge of limestone, at the end of which, at a distance of six miles, the solid line of the watershed stretched across the valley to the base of the eastern ridge; and beyond, to the north-east, the broken heights leading up to Mount Hor bounded the landscape. We were at length about to reach the long wished for "saddle" of the Wâdy el Arabah, towards which we had been slowly rising day by day for four days; and early in the afternoon our luncheon tent was pitched on the saddle itself, and we could look northwards down the descent of the Arabah Valley towards the depression of the Salt Sea.

Wâdy Gharandel.—Throughout our wanderings we met with three valleys of this name. One entering the Gulf of Suez, two days' march from Ayun Mûsa; another descending from the mountains of Edom, about 40 miles north of Akabah; and the third descending from the table land of Moab, and entering the Salt Sea from the south-east. These valleys are all remarkable for their physical features; and our camp on the 6th December was nearly opposite the entrance of the second of these, where it opens out on the valley of the Arabah. Near its entrance are some wells (Ayun Gharandel), which were visited by Laborde and Vignes. The valley itself was explored by my son, together with Messrs. Hart and Laurence. On passing by some low bluffs of loose sand we saw the entrance to the valley between cliffs of hard coarse puddingstone over 100 feet high, which rest on the limestone formation. This conglomerate is formed of blocks and fragments, chiefly of sandstone, porphyry, and metamorphic rock, derived from the cliffs further east. Here the valley is pretty wide, and contains a fair amount of shrubs and acacias. After winding up the valley for a mile in an easterly direction, it appears as if about to come to an abrupt termination. A spring of fresh water wells out, giving rise to a considerable amount of verdure. The cliffs are formed of red porphyry, which here rises up sharply against the limestone. We have in fact crossed the main fault of the Wâdy el Arabah. The porphyry is surmounted by other cliffs of the red Desert Sandstone. Through this mass of rock a small stream has cut its channel, and the only way up the valley is by this narrow chasm, averaging about 10 feet across, and bounded by walls gradually increasing in height. After passing up this for a few hundred yards, the chasm widens out somewhat; and the sandstone cliffs gain an altitude of over 800 feet, forming a magnificent and almost perpendicular wall of rock, specially towards the north. Some time was spent in this grand valley, which lays open the structure of the Edomite mountains almost to their centre. Having taken some photographs the party returned, and reached the camp at the base of Jebel Haroun long after dark.

During the day, when crossing the numerous sand-dunes, it helped to pass the time to note the many and varied footprints often clearly impressed on their surface. Of these the most numerous were those of the gazelle, which are somewhat like those of a sheep, but sharper and more closely compacted; others of hyænas, and a few of large felines, probably leopards. If one were to draw a conclusion from the great numbers of these footprints it would be that during the night the whole surface of the valley is alive with wild animals, which emerge from their dens and hiding-places in search of food and water.

After a long and fatiguing ride over very broken ground we camped in the Wâdy Abu Kuseibeh, near the entrance to the Wâdy Haroun, and at a distance of about five miles from the base of Mount Hor.

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1. “Travels in Syria,” p. 360-412.
2. “Voyage d’Exploration de la Mer Morte.” 3 vols. (Paris).
3. Trans. Assoc. Americ. Geol., p. 348 (1841-42).
4. “Land of Israel,” 2 Edit., p. 329, et seq.
5. Bible Dic., Art. “Arabah.”
6. “Geologie de la Mer Morte,” p. 259, et seq.
7. As shown on the geological map of the expedition. According to Robinson, Arabah is a Hebrew word signifying “a desert plain,” or “steppe,” and has come down to us with the prefix “El,” as “El Arabah,” as the great plain throughout its whole extent from The Ghôr to the Gulf of Akabah (“Bib. Res.,” ii, 186).
8. According to this view Elath (Akabah) and Ezion Geber were at opposite sides of the gulf. According to the statement of Moses they were evidently close to each other, and therefore not likely to be on the same side of the bay. Antoninus Martyr of Placentia, describes Æla as a port at the head of the Red Sea, about A.D. 600.
9. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxxi, p. 9, et seq.
10. The old terraces of gravel and sand, with univalve shells, which occur near the spot of our camp of the 13th December, can only be referred in my opinion to the action of the Salt Sea when at a high level, there being no barrier towards the north. The aneroid stood at 29·9 at this spot, and was very much the same as at the margin of the Gulf of Akabah.
11. The position of Kadesh Barnea is a subject of much uncertainty, but it may be inferred to have lain somewhere inwards from the western margin of the Wady el Arabah to the north of the watershed. Mr. Holland came to the conclusion that this place was either at Ain Kadeis, at the western end of Jebel Magrah, or at the eastern base of this mountain near the head of Wâdy Garaijeh (Quarterly Statement, Jan. 1884, p. 5). Dr. Trumbull, following the views of the late Rev. J. Eolands, and having personally visited the spot, concurs in identifying Ain Kadeis (one of the alternative spots of Mr. Holland) as Kadesh Barnea; and names Jebel Madurah of that district as Mount Hor ("Kadesh Barnea," 1884, p. 129, et seq.) I am inclined to concur in the former identification, but not in the latter. See p. 188, et seq.