PAKAWA
402
PAKAWA
Middle Apos bogan to he utidorstood. Even under (lie
Directory and in David's studio there was a small
body railing themselves the "Primitifs". Chateau-
briand's "Cienius of Christianity" was published on
the same day as the Concordat of 1802. At Rome a
little circle of German artists, weary of Goethe's Hel-
lenic rationalism, returned to mysticism, discovered
St. Francis of Assisi, and by painting reopened the
sources of the moral life. Unfortunately these " Naza-
renes", Ovcrbock, Steinle, and the rest, had but a poor
artistic sense. A l>"renrhman, Jean Dominique Ingres,
had better success and endowed with life his "Bestowal
of the Keys" (1820), his "Vow of Louis XIII" (1824),
his "St. Symphorian" (1834), and some of his Virgins.
Other painters also treated rehgious subjects: the Protestant .\ry SchefTer, Paul Delaroche, even De- camps. But the only one who succeeds in arousing emotion is Paul Delacroix, whose "Christ on Mt. Olivet" (1827), "Descent from the Cross" (1834), "Goo<l Hamaritan" at Mantua, "Christ Stilling the Tempest", .-11111 especially his Chapel of the Angels in the churdi of .St. Sulpiee, are examples of immortal passion and poetry. With Flandrin's frescoes may be mentioned those of Victor Mottoz at St. Germain I'Auxerrois, of Chass<^riau at St. Roch, and especially the splendid scenes from the "Legend of St. Gene- vieve" (1878-98) by Puvis de Chavannes in the old Pantheon. Henner and L#on Bonnat have painted famous Christs; Ernest Hebert has painted Virgins such as that of "The Deliverance" (1872) which are real masterpieces. Some of Bouguereau's are also worthy of mention.
But in France, as elsewhere, religious painting prop- erly so called tends to disappear. The attempts of some sincere painters in England and Germany have had but few imitators. Despite rare merits, the Pre- Raphaelite school has left only studied works in which scholarship supersedes sentiment. This is especially true of Burne-Jones and Rossetti, whose style too often shows affectation and artifice. James Tissot, with his scrupulous Orientalism, has failed to capture the true Evangelical perfume. The best work of this school has been produced by Holman Hunt in his "Scapegoat" and "Shadow of the Cross", which display singular refinement, somewhat hardened by empha.sis, but new, impressive, and original. The German Gebhardt does not approach these master- pieces in his "Last Supper" of the Berlin Museum. A recent Franciscan Pre-Raphaelitism in France has produced the prints of Charles Marie Dulac and some charming decorations of Maurice Denis, such as his "Assumption" in the church of V^sinet.
The reason for this impoverishment of religious art must not be sought in a diminution of the Christian sentiment. It is due primarily to the fact that reli- gious art has become an industry and concurrence is no longer possible between the artists and the dealers, but the chief reason lies in the very evolution of reli- gious ideas, which now seek a new form. This has been shown by the painter John La Farge ("Higher Life in Art," 1908). Much of the religious .sentiment of the nineteenth century has been expressed in land- scape painting. To the angelic soul of Corot painting was always a prayer, and the same is true of our great- est Christian painter. Millet, whose peasants naturally assume the appearance of Biblical characters, as of the paintings of the same class by Leon Lhermitte ("Pil- grims of Emmaus", 1894, Boston Museum; "Among the Ix)wly", 1905, New York Mu.seum), those of L<Srolle, Fritz von Uhdc, and especially of Eugene Carri&re.
Such are the outlines of religious painting during the past 900 years. Ancient Christianity expressed every sentiment and ignored no shade of human nature. And if religious painting now seems uncertain in Europe, in view of the great movement incessantly impelling from East to West and in consideration of
the wonderful development of the Church in the New
World, who knows what future still awaits it in
America?
General: Seroux d'Aoincoubt, Hist, de I'art par Ira monu- ments (Paris, 1892), 6 vols, in fol.; Winter and Deiiio, Hunts- gcschirhte in Bildern (S vols., Leipzig, 1S09-1900): Reinach, R6- perloire de peintures anthieures au X Vllh s. (3 vols., Pixria. 1905- 10); Kitvt'M, Cn'^rhiehte der chri&tlichen Kttnst (Freib. iin Breisg., IS!).' TKUi', \\'MruMANN AND WoLTMANN, Gcschichie de Malerei {!.' II' ! i -7't ■^^^; Michel, Histoire de Vart depuis les premiers l-rnr . 7«'d nos /ours (Paris. lS9.5);VENTURi,S(ortadeii'
.Ir/r //,,;,,,,, \lil:in, 1901); Bchckhardt, Le Cicerone (Paris, IMfl.'); LowHiF., (christian Art and ArchtFology {New Yovk, 1901): Gradmann, (Je&chichtc der christlichen Kunst (Stuttgart, 1902); MuTHER, History of Painting from the Fourth to the Eighteenth Century (New York. 1907).
Special: First period. — De Rossi. Roma Sotterranea (Rome. 1864-67); P£rat£, L'archfologie ehritienne (Paris, 1892); ^avuTzE, Archa-ologie de altchristlichen Kunst (Munich, 1895); Marucchi, Le catacombe romane (Rome, 1903); Idem. Elements d'archiologie chretienne (Paris, 1899-1902); Wilpert, Die Kata- combengemdlde (Freiburg, 1892).
Second period. — Diehl, Manuel d'art byzantin (Paris. 1910); Strzygowski. Orient Oder Rom (Leipzig. 1902) ; Idem, Kleinasien (Leipzig, 1903); Kondakoff, Histoire de I'art byzanlin considirS principalement dans les miniatures, French tr. (Paris. 1886-91); Ainalow, Origines helUnistiques de Vart byzanlin (St. Peters- burg, 1900): Schultz and Barnslet, The monastery of St. Luke of Stiris in Phocis (London. 1902); Millet, Le monaslire de Daphni (Paris. 1899) ; Didbon. Manuel de la peinture (Paris. 1845).
Third period. — Kraus. Burckhardt, Michel, etc.. opp. cit. above: M-ALE. L'art religieux en France au Xllle si^cle (2nd ed., Paris. 1902) ; Idem, L'art religieux en France d la fin du moyen Age (Paris, 190S); DiDRON. Iconographie ehritienne (Paris. 1843); Di- DRON AND Cahier, Lcs Vitraux de Bourges (Paris, 1846); MiiNTz, Les Pri.-iirs.uTK ,U la Rcnnssiance (Puris. 1882; Italian ed., Flor- ewr. Till"' Mi-\-T7, II i-t'-n'-r - '." /'.;7 jnudant la Renaissance (I'lti I" 1- w,,iiii' /I /, ', /,, Kunst, EinfUhrung in
di> I I,' ■ . 'Mir .1, 1 * M 1 1 1 ; Crowe AND Caval-
CAsi III, ,,.,', ',,, ;,,,,,,„, ,."„ M.il.rei (Leipzig, 1869-76;
EiiKlisii f'i,. l.nTHiijii, liiD.ii; 1 Huut;. t'raiLz von Assisi und die Angldnge der Kunst in Italien (Berlin, 1903; French tr., 1909); L. Douglas. History of Siena (London. 1902); Idem, Fra Angelieo (London, 1902); Janitschek, Geschichte der deutsehen Malerei (Berlin. 1890): RiAU, Les Primitifs allemands (Paris, 1910); BoucHOT, Les Primitifs francais (Paris, 1904); Samfere y Mi- guel, Quaitrocentistas catalaOas (Barcelona, 1907); Bertaux, U Exposition de Saragosse (1911); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Les anciens peintres flamands (Brussels, 1862-63); Dehaisnes. 7)e I'arl chrtlien en Flandre (Douai, 1860) ; Weale. The Early Painters of the Netherlands in Burlington Magazine (1903); Idem, Hans Memtinr (London, 1902); Berenson, Lorenzo Lotto (London, 1902); Cossio, El Greco (Madrid, 1908); BROUbsOLLE, L'art re- ligieux pendant la Renaissance (Paris, 1908).
Fourth period.— Ebe. Die Spdtrenaissanee (Beriin, 1886); GuRLiTT, Geschichte des Barockstiles (Stuttgart. 1887-89); Fra9- chetti. // Bernini (Milan, 1900); BoEHM, Guido Reni (Bielefeld, 1910); Fusti. Murillo (Leipzig, 1892); Fromentin. Les Mattres d'autrefois (Paris, 1876); Bode, Studien zur geschichte der hoi- Idndischen Malerei (Brunschurg, 1883); VENTtTBi, Tiepolo, French tr. (Paris, 1911).
Fifth period. — Delaborde, Hippolyle Flandrin (Paris, 1872) ; Idem, Ingres {Pans, 1867); Rolland, J. L. Millet (London, 1903); Steinle, Briefwechsel (Fribourg, 1S98) ; de la Sizeraune, La peinture anglaise contemporaine (3rd ed., Paris, 1903); Idem, Ruskin et la religion de la Beauts (5th ed.. 1903); Idem, Le miroir de la vie (Paris, 1902) ; W. H. Hunt, The Preraphaelite Brotherhood (London, 1906); S^ailles, Eugine Carriire (Paris, 1911).
Louis GiLLET.
takawa Indians, also written Pacod, one of a group of cognate tribes, hence designated the Paka^ Wiin (formerly Coahuilteean) stock, formerly ranging on the upper waters of the San Antonio and Nueces rivers, in Southern Texas, and extending to or beyond the Rio Grande. The group comprised at least fifty small tribes — few of which contained more than two or three hundred souls — the principal being the Pakawa, Payaya, Sanipao, Tilijae, Pamaque, and Xar.ame. They are notable for their connexion with the famous San Antonio missions and for the record whicli Father (Jarcla has left of their language, which appears to have been used over a considerable area for intertrii);d communication. Almo.st nothing is known of the I'tlinology of the Pakawan tribes, which were of low culture, without agriculture or fixed habitation, but roving from jilace to place, subsisting upon game and the wild fruits of the mesquite, pecan, and cactus, dwelling under temporary shelters of brushwood and grass thatch, and with very little tribal cohesion or organization. While their neighbours, the T6nkawa and other tribes of eastern Texas were notorious can- nibals, this was probably not true of the Pakawd who,
