PERSIA
715
PERSIA
D. Tlie Sassanian Dynasty (a. d. 227-651).— The
immediate causes wiiich brought about the overthrow
of the Parthian kingdom and the establishment of
the dynasty of Sassan in its stead are not Icnown. The
new dynasty of the Sassanids was a more genuine
representative of the civilized Iranian race than the
Parthian Arsacida', especially as far as religion was
concerned. The founder of the Sassanian dynasty,
Ardashir Papakan (Artaxerxes, son of Papak), was
born at Persis, in central Iran; his family claimed
descent from a mythical ancestor, Sassan, and he was
therefore of the priestly caste. Babek, the father of
Ardashir, seems to have founded a small kingdom at
Persis, and to have annexed the territories of other
lesser princes, thus gradually encroaching on various
Parthian provinces. Vologeses V, the last king of the
Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, declared war against the
rising chief, but was defeated and put to death by
Ardashir A. D. 227. Thus the Parthian Empire passed
into the hands of the Sassanian dynasty. The sur-
viving Arsacids fled to India, and all the provinces
accepted Ardashir's rule without resistance. It was
in fact the beginning of a new national and religious
movement, the new dynasty being looked upon as
the true and genuine successor of the old and noble
Ach^menian dynasty, and of the Zoroastrian religion.
One of the first acts of Ardashir was to send an embassy to Rome demanding that the whole of West- ern Asia should be cedetl to him. Soon afterwards, in 230, he sought to regain the lost provinces of Meso- potamia by force of arms. The emperor, Alexander Severus, opposed the advance of Ardashir's army, but was only partly successful. Ardashir devoted the re- maining years of his reign to founding new towns, schools, and temples, and to reorganizing the judicial system of the courts and the army. Everywhere were evidences of a new development of the true Iranian spirit; and it was not long before the Persian nation deemed itself sufficiently strong once more to enforce its old claims to the sovereignty of Western Asia. Sapor I, the son of Ardashir, who reigned from 240 to 273, renewed the war with Rome, first against Gor- dian, then against Valerian. The latter emperor was treacherously seized at a conference in 260, and spent the rest of his life in a Persian prison subject to most barbarous ill-usage. Sapor then conquered Syria and destroyed Antioch, but was finally driven back by Odenathus, King of Palmyra. Aiter the death of Odenathus the war was continued by his widow, Zenobia, who was so elated by her success that she attempted to found an independent Syrian empire under the leadership of Palmyra, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the Romans under Aurelian.
The third Sassanid king, Hormuz, reigned only one year; liis successor, Bahram I (274-77), continued the war with Zenobia and afterwards with Aurelian. But this war terminated, without any result, at the death of Aurelian, in 275. During this period, the revival of the Zoroastrian religion became a move- ment of great importance. Having attained ascend- ancy in Persia under the early Sassanid kings, it grew very intolerant, persecuting alike heathen and Chris- tian. It first turned against Mani, the founder of Manichseism, and his folio wers, under Bahram I. Mani himself, at first in favour at the Persian Court, was crucified about the year 275. Under the next king, Bahram II (277-94), Persia suffered severe reverses from the Roman Emperor Cams, the capital city, Ctesiphon, even falling into the hands of the Romans. Bahram III, son of Bahram II, reigned only eight months, and was succeeded by his younger brother, Narsi I, who renewed the war with Rome with disas- trous results. He was succeeded by his son, Hormuz II (303-10), and he, again, by Sapor II (310-81). It was in the latter reign that the Christians in Persia suffered serious persecution. During the early years of Sapor II the Christian religion received formal
recognition from Constantine, and there is no doubt
that this identification of the Church with the Roman
Empire was the chief cause of its disfavour in Persia.
Moreover, there is evidence that Christianity had
spread widely in the Persian dominions, and every
Christian was suspected of disaffection towards the
Persian king and secret attachment to the Roman
Empire, the more so because even the Persian-speak-
ing Christians employed the Syriac language in their
worship. Probably this feeling of suspicion was in-
creased by the letter which Constantine wrote to
Sapor (Theod., "H. E.", I, xxv), asking protection
for the Christians resident in Persia. (See III, below.)
To this period belongs Aphraates, a converted Persian
noble, a writer of homilies. When Constantine was
dead, and the Magi had attained complete ascendancy
over the Persian king, a persecution ensued which
was far more severe than any of those of the Roman
Emperors.
This attack upon the Christians was but part of Sapor's anti-Western policy. In 350 he openly de- clared war against Rome, and marched on Syria. The first important action was the siege of Nisibis, where the famous Jacob, foimder of the school of Nisibis, was then bishop. The siege lasted seventy days, and then the Persians having built a dam across the River Mygdonius, the waters broke down the wall. The siege was unsuccessful, however, and the campaign ended in a truce. Julian, who became emperor in 361, determined to invade the dominions of Sapor. In March, 363, he set out from Antioch to march towards Carrae. From the latter point two roads led to Persia: one through Nisibis to the Tigris, the other turning south along the Euphrates and then crossing the lower Tigris. Julian chose the second of these and, passing through Callinicum, Carchemish, and Zaitham, reached the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where he was met with proposals of peace from Sapor, but refused them. After crossing the Tigris, he burned his ships to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy; but the result was suinctliing like a panic amongst his followers. Supplies ran short, and the army entered the desert, where it seems to have lost its way. There had been no battle as yet, but almost daily skirmishes with the light-armed Persian cavalry. In one of these skirmishes Julian was slain by a jave- lin, whether thrown by one of the enemy or by one of his own followers has never been known. The soldiers at once elected Jovian, one of Julian's gen- erals, and he began his reign by making a thirty years' truce with Persia. The Persians were to supply guides and food for the retreat, while the Romans promised to surrender Nisibis and give up their pro- tectorate over Armenia and Iberia, which became Persian provinces. The surrender of Nisibis put an end to the school established there by Jacob, but his disciple Ephraim removed to Edessa, and there re- established the school, so that Edessa became once more the centre of Syriac intellectual life. With this school must be connected the older Syriac martyr- ologies, and many of the Syriac translations and edi- tions of Greek church manuals, canons, and theological writers. Thus were preserved Syriac versions of many important works, the original Greek of which is lost.
In spite of this thirty years' truce, the Persians for a time kept up a petty warfare, the Romans acting on the defensive. But as age rendered Sapor helpless, this warfare died out. Sapor died in 380, at the age of seventy; being a posthumous son, he had spent his whole life on the throne. During the reigns of Sapor III and Bahram IV Persia remained at peace. In 379 the Emperor Theodosius the Great received an em- bassy from Persia proposing friendly relations. This was mainly due to the fact that the Persians had diffi- culties on their northern and eastern frontiers, and wished to have their hands free in the west. Inci- dentally, it may be noted that the flourishing period
