LIPPINCOTT 492 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES Florence in 1460, and educated at Prato. His artistic style has a strong element of originality, but also shows the influence of his father and Botticelli. His most celebrated frescoes are scenes from the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul in the Brancacci chapel at Florence, incidents illustrating the character of St. Thomas Aquinas in the Minerva church at Rome, and subjects from the legends of St. John and St. Philip in Sta. Maria Novella at Florence. His best easel pictures in- clude "The Virgin and Saints" (in the UfRzi at Florence), "The Adora- tion of the Magi," "The Vision of St. Francis." Filippino died in Florence in April, 1504. LIPPINCOTT, SARA JANE (CLARKE), pseudonym Grace Green- wood, an American writer; born in Pom- pey, N. Y,, Sept. 23, 1823. She was well known as an editor and contribu- tor. "Ariadne" is one of her best poems. She published: "Greenwood Leaves" (1850); "Poems" (1851); "Records of Five Years" (1868) ; and "New Life in New Lands" (1873); "Recollections of My Childhood": "Stories and Legends of Ireland"; etc. She died April 20, 1904. LIPPITT, HENRY FREDERICK, an American public official; born in Provi- dence, R. I.J in 1856. He graduated from Brown University in 1878. He at once entered the cotton manufacturing busi- ness and became general manager of The Manville Co. He was also director in many other banks and corporations. From 1911 to 1917 he was United States Senator from Rhode Island. LIPPMANN, WALTER, an American writer; born in New York, in 1889. He graduated from Harvard in 1910, and afterward carried on post-graduate studies in philosophy. From 1914 to 1917 he was assistant editor of the "New Republic," and in the latter year he be- came an adviser of the War Department at Washington. He contributed widely to periodicals on social and political sub- jects. His published writings include "A Preface to Politics" (1913) ; "Drift and Mastery" (1914) ; "The Stakes of Diplo- macy" (1915). LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHN- STONE, a British sportsman; born in Glasgow, of Irish parents. He was pro- prietor of large tea estates in Ceylon; owned a refrigerator car plant in the United States; and was president of a pork packing company in Chicago. He was, however, best known as the owner of the English yachts "Shamrock I." and "Shamrock II.", with which vessels he unsuccessfully competed for the America's Cup (q. v.) with the Ameri- can yacht "Columbia" in 1899 and 1901. During Queen Victoria's Jubilee, in 1897, the Princess of Wales issued an appeal for money to provide dinners for the poorest of the poor in London on some one day of the festivities. To this fund Lipton contributed $100,000. The result of this movement was "The Alexandra Trust," the purpose of which is to pro- vide restaurants all over London where working people may buy wholesome, well- cooked food at cost price. To this object Lipton gave $500,000 in 1898, and prom- ised more when needed. In consideration of his liberality he was knighted in 1898. Representing the Royal Ulster Yacht Club, Sir Thomas contested for the America's Cup in 1899, 1901, 1903, and again in July, 1920. LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. It was formerly believed that certain gases could not be liquefied under any condi- tions, and from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century it was customary to distinguish "gases" from "vapors" by the statement that only the latter could be liquefied. It is now known, however, that any gas can be liquefied provided the necessary high pressure and low temperature can be obtained. The ear- liest gas to be liquefied was sulphur dioxide, by Monge and Clouet at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and a few years later chlorine and hydrogen chloride were reduced to the liquid state by Northmore. Little interest was slaown in the subje t however, until 1823, when Faraday began his series of experiments on liquefaction of gases, as a result of which he succeeded in producing sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, cyanogen, ammonia, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide in a liquid form. His method was to introduce materials for generating gas into the limb of a bent tube, the other limb being sealed and packed in a freezing mixture. On generating the gas, high pressure was produced, and at length the gas liquefied in the cold limb. Other work- ers, on similar lines, were Bussy, Thi- lorier and Natterer, but certain gases, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon monoxide could not be liquefied even though the enormous pressure of 3600 atmospheres was used by Natterer, and for a time it was believed that there existed so-called "permanent gases," which defied liquefaction. Then _ came the discovery, by Andrews, of "critical" phenomena. He found that on compress- ing carbon dioxide in a tube at a tem- perature below 30 9°C, the volume dimin- ished until, at a certain pressure, which
