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CHAPTER 3
Nanotechnology Processes and Engineering Controls
3.1 Primary Nanotechnology Production and Downstream Processes
Currently, nanomaterials are produced using a variety of methods that provide conditions for the formation of desired shapes, sizes, and chemical composition. These production processes can be separated into six categories [HSE 2004; NNI, no date]:
- Gas phase processes, including flame pyrolysis, high-temperature evaporation, and plasma synthesis. This process involves the growth of nanoparticles by homogenous nucleation of supersaturated vapor. Nanoparticles are formed in a reactor at high temperatures when source material in solid, liquid, or gaseous form is injected into the reactor. These precursors are supersaturated by expansion and cooled prior to the initiation of nucleated growth. The size and composition of the final materials depend on the materials used and process parameters.
- Chemical vapor deposition (CVD). This process has been used to deposit thin films of silicon on semiconductor wafers. The chemical vapor is formed in a reactor by pyrolysis, reduction, oxidation, and nitridation and deposited as a film with the nucleation of a few atoms that coalesce into a continuous film. This process has been used to produce many nanomaterials including TiO2, zinc oxide, silicon carbide, and, possibly most importantly, CNTs. The use of fluidized bed technology has been adopted as a way to prepare CNTs on a large scale at low cost [Wang et al. 2002]. This technology fluidizes CNT agglomerates and produces high yields necessary for larger-scale operations.
- Colloidal or liquid phase methods. Chemical reactions in solvents lead to the formation of colloids. Solutions of different ions are mixed to produce insoluble precipitates. This method is a fairly simple and inexpensive way to produce nanoparticles and is often used for the synthesis of metals (e.g., gold, silver). These nanomaterials may remain in liquid suspension or may be processed into dry powder materials often by spray drying and collection through filtration.
- Mechanical processes including grinding, milling, and alloying. These processes create nanomaterials by a “top-down” method that reduces the size of larger bulk materials through the application of energy to break materials into smaller and smaller particles. This technique has been referred to as nanosizing or ultrafine grinding.
- Atomic and molecular beam epitaxy. Atomic layer epitaxy is the process of depositing monolayers (i.e., layers one molecule thick) of alternating materials and is commonly used in semiconductor fabrication. Molecular beam epitaxy is another process for depositing highly controlled crystalline layers onto a substrate.
Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream Handling Processes
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