foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason (see Organ), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French diapason normal (see Pitch, Musical).
DIAPER (derived through the Fr, from the Gr. διά, through, and ἄσπρος, white; the derivation from the town of Ypres, “d’Ypres,” in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In architecture, the term “diaper” is given to any small pattern of a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the process of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone, as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting, stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manufacture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as ecclesiastical vestments.
In its textile use, the term diaper was originally applied to silk patterns of a geometrical pattern; it is now almost exclusively used for diamond patterns made from linen or cotton yarns. An illustration of two patterns of this nature is shown in the figure. The floats of the warp and the weft are mostly in three; indeed the patterns are made from a base weave which is composed entirely of floats of this number. It will be seen that both designs are formed of what may be termed concentric figures—alternately black and white. Pattern B differs from pattern A only in that more of these concentric figures are used for the complete figure. If pattern B, which shows only one unit, were extended, the effect would be similar to A, except for the size of the unit. In A there are four complete units, and hence the pattern appears more striking. Again, the repeating of B would cause the four corner pieces to join and to form a diamond similar to the one in the centre. The two diamonds in B would then alternate diagonally to left and right. Special names are given to certain kinds of diapers, e.g. “bird’s-eye,” “pheasant’s-eye”; these terms indicate, to a certain extent, the size of the complete diamond in the cloth—the smaller kind taking the name “bird’s-eye.” The size of the pattern on paper has little connexion with the size of the pattern in the cloth, for it is clearly the number of threads and picks per inch which determine the size of the pattern in the cloth from any given design. Although A is larger than what is usually termed the “bird’s-eye” pattern, it is evident that it may be made to appear as such, provided that the cloth is fine enough. These designs, although adapted mostly for cloths such as nursery-diapers, for pinafores, &c., are sometimes used in the production of towels and table-cloths. In the figure, the first pick in A is identical with the first pick in B, and the part C shows how each interweaves with the twenty-four threads.
DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. διαφορεῖν, to carry through), the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration. In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool. Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows, and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of Bright’s disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature; while, on the other hand, in many wasting diseases, such as phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhausting sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspiration, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous medicinal substances have the same effect.
Fig. 1.—Abdominal Surface of the Diaphragm.
DIAPHRAGM (Gr. διάφραγμα, a partition). The diaphragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon (q, fig. 1) is trefoil in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d), laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quadratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continuations of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from three, the left (f) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n) to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumogastric nerves (l), the left being in front and the right behind.
