his residence at Viterbo. The following month he excommunicated Arnold of Brescia in a synod at Cremona, and thenceforth devoted most of his energies to the recovery of his see. As the result of negotiations between Frederick Barbarossa and the Romans, Eugenius was finally enabled to return to Rome in December 1152, but died in the following July. He was succeeded by Anastasius IV. Eugenius retained the stoic virtues of monasticism throughout his stormy career, and was deeply reverenced for his personal character. His tomb in St Peter’s acquired fame for miraculous cures, and he was pronounced blessed by Pius IX. in 1872.
The chief sources for the career of Eugenius III. are his letters in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat., vols. 106, 180, 182, and in Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes, vol. 57 (Paris, 1896); the life by Cardinal Boso in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. vitae, vol. 2; and the life by John of Salisbury in Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, vol. 20.
See J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900–1902); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; Jaffé-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885–1888); M. Jocham, Geschichte des Lebens u. der Verehrung des seligen Papstes Eugen III. (Augsburg, 1873); G. Sainati, Vita del beato Eugenio III (Pisa, 1868); J. Jastrow and G. Winter, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen, i. (Stuttgart, 1897); C. Neumann, Bernhard von Clairvaux u. die Anfänge der zweiten Kreuzzuges (Heidelberg, 1882); B. Kugler, Analekten zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzugs (Tübingen, 1878, 1883). (C. H. Ha.)
Eugenius IV. (Gabriel Condulmieri), pope from the 3rd of
March 1431 to the 23rd of February 1447, was born at Venice
of a merchant family in 1383. He entered the Celestine order
and came into prominence during the pontificate of his uncle,
Gregory XII., by whom he was appointed bishop of Siena, papal
treasurer, protonotary, cardinal-priest of St Marco e St Clemente,
and later cardinal-priest of Sta Maria in Trastevere. His violent
measures, as pope, against the relations of his predecessor,
Martin V., at once involved him in a serious contest with the
powerful house of Colonna. But by far the most important feature
of Eugenius’s pontificate was the great struggle between pope and
council. On the 23rd of July 1431 his legate opened the council
of Basel which had been convoked by Martin, but, distrustful
of its purposes and moved by the small attendance, the pope
issued a bull on the 18th of December 1431, dissolving the council
and calling a new one to meet in eighteen months at Bologna.
The council refused to dissolve, renewed the revolutionary
resolutions by which the council of Constance had been declared
superior to the pope, and cited Eugenius to appear at Basel.
A compromise was arranged by Sigismund, who had been crowned
emperor at Rome on the 31st of May 1433, by which the pope
recalled the bull of dissolution, and, reserving the rights of the
Holy See, acknowledged the council as ecumenical (15th of
December 1433). The establishment of an insurrectionary republic
at Rome drove him into exile in May 1434, and, although
the city was restored to obedience in the following October, he
remained at Florence and Bologna. Meanwhile the struggle
with the council broke out anew. Eugenius at length convened
a rival council at Ferrara on the 8th of January 1438 and excommunicated
the prelates assembled at Basel. The result was
that the latter formally deposed him as a heretic on the 25th of
June 1439, and in the following November elected the ambitious
Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, antipope under the title of
Felix V. The conduct of France and Germany seemed to
warrant this action, for Charles VII. had introduced the decrees
of the council of Basel, with slight changes, into the former
country through the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (7th of July
1438), and the diet of Mainz had deprived the pope of most of his
rights in the latter country (26th of March 1439). At Florence,
whither the council of Ferrara had been transferred on account
of an outbreak of the plague, was effected in July 1439 a union
with the Greeks, which, as the result of political necessities,
proved but temporary. This union was followed by others of
even less stability. Eugenius signed an agreement with the
Armenians on the 22nd of November 1439, and with a part of the
Jacobites in 1443; and in 1445 he received the Nestorians and
Maronites. He did his best to stem the Turkish advance,
pledging one-fifth of the papal income to the crusade which set
out in 1443, but which met with overwhelming defeat. His
rival, Felix V., meanwhile obtained small recognition, and the
latter’s ablest adviser, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, made peace
with Eugenius in 1442. The pope’s recognition of the claims to
Naples of King Alphonso of Aragon withdrew the last important
support from the council of Basel, and enabled him to make a
victorious entry into Rome on the 28th of September 1443,
after an exile of nearly ten years. His protests against the
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges were ineffectual, but by means
of the Concordat of the Princes, negotiated by Piccolomini with
the electors in February 1447, the whole of Germany declared
against the antipope. Although his pontificate had been so
stormy and unhappy that he is said to have regretted on his
death-bed that he ever left his monastery, nevertheless Eugenius’s
victory over the council of Basel and his efforts in behalf of
church unity contributed greatly to break down the conciliar
movement and restore the papacy to the position it had held
before the Great Schism. Eugenius was dignified in demeanour,
but inexperienced and vacillating in action and excitable in
temper. Bitter in his hatred of heresy, he yet displayed great
kindness to the poor. He laboured to reform the monastic orders,
especially the Franciscan, and was never guilty of nepotism.
Although a type of the austere monk in his private life, he was a
sincere friend of art and learning, and in 1431 re-established
finally the university at Rome. He died on the 23rd of February
1447, and was succeeded by Nicholas V.
See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. 1., trans, by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. 3 (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 7, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900–1902); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Bd. 7, 2nd ed.; H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity, vol. 8 (London, 1896); G. Voigt, Enea Silvio de Piccolomini, Bd. 1-3 (Berlin, 1856); Aus den Annaten-Registern der Päpste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II. u. Sixtus IV., ed. by K. Hayn (Cologne, 1896). There is an admirable article by Tschackert in Hauck’s Realencyklopädie, 3rd ed. vol. 5. (C. H. Ha.)
EUGENOL (allyl guaiacol, eugenic acid), C10H12O2, an odoriferous
principle; it is the chief constituent of oil of cloves, and occurs in
many other essential oils. It can be synthetically prepared by the
reduction of coniferyl alcohol, (HO)(CH3O)C6H3·CH:CH·CH2OH,
which occurs in combination with glucose in the glucoside
coniferin, C16H22O8. It is a colourless oil boiling at 247° C.,
and having a spicy odour. On oxidation with potassium permanganate
it gives homovanillin, vanillin, &c.; with chromic
acid in acetic acid solution it is converted into carbon dioxide
and acetic acid, whilst nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid. By
the action of alkalis it is converted into iso-eugenol, which on
oxidation yields vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla (q.v.).
This transformation of allyl phenols into propenyl phenols is
very general (see Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2747; 1890, 23, p. 862).
Alkali fusion of eugenol gives protocatechuic acid. The amount
of eugenol in oil of cloves can be estimated by acetylation, in
presence of pyridine (A. Verley and Fr. Baelsing, Ber., 1901, 34,
p. 3359). Chavibetol, an isomer of eugenol, occurs in the ethereal
oil obtained from Piper betle.
The structural relations are:
EUHEMERUS [Euemerus, Evemerus], Greek mythographer,
born at Messana, in Sicily (others say at Chios, Tegea, or Messene
in Peloponnese), flourished about 300 B.C., and lived at the court
of Cassander. He is chiefly known by his Sacred History
(Ἱερὰ ἀναγραφή), a philosophical romance, based upon archaic
inscriptions which he claimed to have found during his travels in
various parts of Greece. He particularly relies upon an account
of early history which he discovered on a golden pillar in a temple
on the island of Panchaea when on a voyage round the coast of
Arabia, undertaken at the request of Cassander, his friend and
patron. There is apparently no doubt that this island is
