going farther back still among the rudiments and first conceptions of his art, we can realize the most essential charm of his genius in the study, not of his modelled work at all, but of his sketches in pen and wash on paper. Of these the principal public collections are at University College, in the British Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the excellence of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus and Hesiod, in all cases save when the designer aims at that which he cannot hit, the terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman at his best it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the original studies for such designs as these (which, with the exception of the Hesiod series, are far finer than the engravings), but still more with those almost innumerable studies from real life which he was continually producing with pen, tint or pencil. These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor’s notes in existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that struck his fancy. There are groups of Italy and London, groups of the parlour and the nursery, of the street, the garden and the gutter; and of each group the artist knows how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual secret, expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art of sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and balancings of the various figures in any given group, and not less happily the charm of the affections which link the figures together and inspire their gestures.
The materials for the life of Flaxman are scattered in various biographical and other publications; the principal are the following:—An anonymous sketch in the European Magazine for 1823; an anonymous “Brief Memoir,” prefixed to Flaxman’s Lectures (ed. 1829, and reprinted in subsequent editions); the chapter in Allan Cunningham’s Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, &c., vol. iii.; notices in the Life of Nollekens, by John Thomas Smith; in the Life of Josiah Wedgwood, by Miss G. Meteyard (London, 1865); in the Diaries and Reminiscences of H. Crabbe Robinson (London, 1869), the latter an authority of great importance; in the Lives of Stothard, by Mrs Bray, of Constable, by Leslie, of Watson, by Dr Lonsdale, and of Blake, by Messrs Gilchrist and Rossetti; a series of illustrated essays, principally on the monumental sculpture of Flaxman, in the Art Journal for 1867 and 1868, by Mr G. F. Teniswood; Essays in English Art, by Frederick Wedmore; The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 plates, with Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and Genius of Flaxman, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876); and the article “Flaxman” in the Dictionary of National Biography. (S. C.)
FLEA (O. Eng. fléah, or fléa, cognate with flee, to run away
from, to take flight), a name typically applied to Pulex irritans,
a well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other
mammals, remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly
cosmopolitan. In ordinary language the name is used for any
species of Siphonaptera (otherwise known as Aphaniptera),
which, though formerly regarded as a suborder of Diptera
(q.v.), are now considered to be a separate order of insects. All
Siphonaptera, of which more than 100 species are known, are
parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
belong to the family Pulicidae, of which P. irritans may be taken
as the type; but the order also includes the Sarcopsyllidae, the
females of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the Ceratopsyllidae, or bat-fleas.
Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body, small and indistinctly separated head, and short thick antennae situated in cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes, which are always minute and sometimes absent. The structure of the mouth-parts is different from that seen in any other insects. The actual piercing organs are the mandibles, while the upper lip or labrum forms a sucking tube. The maxillae are not piercing organs, and their function is to protect the mandibles and labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of the host. Maxillary and labial palpi are also present, and the latter, together with the labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.
Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamorphosis. The footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very active; they feed upon almost any kind of waste animal matter, and when full-grown form a silken cocoon. The human flea is considerably exceeded in size by certain other species found upon much smaller hosts; thus the European Hystrichopsylla talpae, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small mammals, attains a length of 512 millimetres; another large species infests the Indian porcupine. Of the Sarcopsyllidae the best known species is the “jigger” or “chigoe” (Dermatophilus penetrans), indigenous in tropical South America and introduced into West Africa during the second half of last century. Since then this pest has spread across the African continent and even reached Madagascar. The impregnated female jigger burrows into the feet of men and dogs, and becomes distended with eggs until its abdomen attains the size and appearance of a small pea. If in extracting the insect the abdomen be ruptured, serious trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At least four species of fleas (including Pulex irritans) which infest the common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the active agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human beings. (E. E. A.)
FLÈCHE (French for “arrow”), the term generally used in
French architecture for a spire, but more especially employed
to designate the timber spire covered with lead, which was
erected over the intersection of the roofs over nave and transepts;
sometimes these were small and unimportant, but in cathedrals
they were occasionally of large dimensions, as in the flèche of
Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly 100 ft. high; this, however,
is exceeded by the example of Amiens cathedral, which measures
148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its finial.
FLÉCHIER, ESPRIT (1632–1710), French preacher and author,
bishop of Nîmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse,
on the 10th of June 1632. He was brought up at Tarascon by
his uncle, Hercule Audiffret, superior of the Congrégation des
Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered the order. On the death of
his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the strictness of its rules,
and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to writing poetry.
His French poems met with little success, but a description in
Latin verse of a tournament (carrousel, circus regius), given
by Louis XIV. in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefèvre de Caumartin,
afterwards intendant of finances and counsellor of state,
whom he accompanied to Clermont-Ferrard (q.v.), where the
king had ordered the Grands Jours to be held (1665), and where
Caumartin was sent as representative of the sovereign. There
Fléchier wrote his curious Mémoires sur les Grand Jours tenus à
Clermont, in which he relates, in a half romantic, half historical
form, the proceedings of this extraordinary court of justice.
In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured for him the post of
lecteur to the dauphin. The sermons of Fléchier increased his
reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest pitch
by his funeral orations. The most important are those on
Madame de Montausier (1672), which gained him the membership
of the Academy, the duchesse d’Aiguillon (1675), and, above all,
Marshal Turenne (1676). He was now firmly established in the
favour of the king, who gave him successively the abbacy of St
Séverin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the office of almoner to the
dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of Lavaur, from which
he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nîmes. The edict of Nantes
had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were still
very numerous at Nîmes. Fléchier, by his leniency and tact,
succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even
gained the esteem of those who declined to change their faith.
During the troubles in the Cévennes (see Huguenots) he softened
to the utmost of his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed
himself so indulgent even to what he regarded as error, that his
memory was long held in veneration amongst the Protestants of
that district. It is right to add, however, that some authorities
consider the accounts of his leniency to have been greatly
exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond what the
edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of February
1710. Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
Fléchier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust
and sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal
Bourdaloue in earnestness of thought and vigour of expression;
nor can he rival the philosophical depth or the insinuating and
