See J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung, i. (2nd ed., 1881), 291; Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, iii. 415; G. Zippel, Die romische Herrschaft in Illyrien (Leipzig, 1877); Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng. trans.), i. 22, 38; A. Forbigur, Handbuch der alten Geographie von Europa (Hamburg, 1877); article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, ii. (1873); Ptolemy, ii. 15, 16; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 28; Strabo vii. 313; Dio Cassius xlix. 34-38, liv. 31-34, lv. 28-32; Veil Pat. ii. 110.
PANOPLY, a complete suit of armour. The word represents the Gr. πᾶνὅπλία. (πᾶν, all, and ὅπλα, arms), the full armour of a hoplite or heavy-armed soldier, i.e. the shield, breastplate, helmet and greaves, together with the sword and lance. As applied to armour of a later date, "panoply" did not come into use till the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, and was then used of the complete suits of plate-armour covering the whole body. The figurative use of the word is chiefly due to the phrase ἡ πανοπλία τοῦ Θεοῦ, "the whole armour of God" (Eph. vi. 11).
PANORAMA (Gr. πᾶν, all, and ὅραμα, view), the name given originally to a pictorial representation of the whole view visible from one point by an observer who in turning round looks successively to all points of the horizon. In an ordinary picture only a small part of the objects visible from one point is included, far less being generally given than the eye of the observer can take in whilst stationary. The drawing is in this case made by projecting the objects to be represented from the point occupied by the eye on a plane. If a greater part of a landscape has to be represented, it becomes more convenient for the artist to suppose himself surrounded by a cylindrical surface in whose centre he stands, and to project the landscape from this position on the cylinder. In a panorama such a cylinder, originally of about 60 ft., but now extending to upwards of 130 ft. diameter, is covered with an accurate representation in colours of a landscape, so that an observer standing in the centre of the cylinder sees the picture like an actual landscape in nature completely surround him in all directions. This gives an effect of great reality to the picture, which is skilfully aided in various ways. The observer stands on a platform representing, say, the flat roof of a house, and the space between this platform and the picture is covered with real objects, which gradually blend into the picture itself. The picture is lighted from above, but a roof is spread over the central platform so that no light but that reflected from the picture reaches the eye. To make this light appear the more brilliant, the passages and staircase which lead the spectator to the platform are kept nearly dark. These panoramas, suggested by a German architectural painter named Breisig, were first executed by Robert Barker, an Edinburgh artist, who exhibited one in Edinburgh in 1788, representing a view of that city. A view of London and views of sea fights and battles of the Napoleonic wars followed. Panoramas gained less favour on the continent of Europe, until, after the Franco-German War, a panorama of the siege of Paris was exhibited in Paris. Since then some notable panoramas have been on view in the cities of Europe and America.
The name panorama, or panoramic view, is also given to drawings of views from mountain peaks or other points of view, such as are found in many hotels in the Alps, or, on a smaller scale, in guide-books to Switzerland and other mountainous districts. In photography a panoramic camera is one which enables a wide picture to be taken.
PANPSYCHISM (Gr. πᾶν, all; ψυχή, soul), a philosophical term applied to any theory of nature which recognizes the existence of a psychical element throughout the objective world. In such theories not only animals and plants but even the smallest particles of matter are regarded as having some rudimentary kind of sensation or "soul," which plays the same part in relation to their objective activities or modifications as the soul does in the case of human beings. Such theories are the modern scientific or semi-scientific counterparts of the primitive animism of savage races, and may be compared with the hylozoism of the Greek physicists. In modern times the chief exponents of panpsychist views are Thomas Carlyle, Fechner and Paulsen: a similar idea lay at the root of the physical theories of the Stoics.
PANSY, or Heartsease. This flower has been so long cultivated that its source is a matter of uncertainty. As we now see it, it is a purely artificial production, differing considerably from any wild plant known. It is generally supposed to be merely a cultivated form of Viola tricolor (see Violet), a cornfield weed, while others assert it to be the result of hybridization between V. tricolor and other species such as V. altaica, V. grandiflora, &c. Some experiments of M. Carrière go to show that seeds of the wild V. tricolor will produce forms so like those of the cultivated pansy that it is reasonable to assume that that flower has originated from the wild plant by continuous selection. The changes that have been effected from the wild type are,
| Wild Pansy (Viola tricolor), about half nat. size. | |
| 1, Stamen, with spur. | 3, Transverse section of same. |
| 2, Pistil, after fertilization, cut lengthwise, showing the numerous parietally attached ovules. |
1-3 enlarged. |
however, more striking to the eye than really fundamental. Increase in size, an alteration in form, by virtue of which the narrow oblong petals are converted into circular ones, and variations in the intensity and distribution of the colour—these are the changes that have been wrought by continued selection, while the more essential parts of the flower have been relatively unaffected. The modern varieties of the pansy consist of the show varieties, and the fancy varieties, obtained from Belgium, and now very much improved. Show varieties are subdivided according to the colour of the flowers into selfs, white grounds and yellow grounds. The fancy or Belgian pansies have various colours blended, and the petals are blotched, streaked or edged. The bedding varieties, known as violas or tufted pansies, have been raised by crossing the pale-blue Viola cornuta, and also V. lutea, with the show pansies. They are hardier than the true pansies and are free-blooming sorts marked rather by effectiveness of colour in the mass than by quality in the individual flower; they are extremely useful in spring and summer flower-gardening.
The pansy flourishes in well enriched garden soil, in an open but cool situation, a loamy soil being preferable. Cow-dung is the best manure on a light soil. The established sorts are increased by cuttings, whilst seeds are sown to procure novelties. The cuttings, which should consist by preference of the smaller non-flowering growths from the base of the plant, may be inserted early in September, in sandy soil, under a hand-light or in boxes under glass, and
