north, and others before the application of the Act to their particular industry.
France is one of the few countries which has applied the 8-hour day to seamen. This was done by a decree of Feb. 24 1920.
ITALY. A decree of May 15 1919 instituted the 8-hour day for workers on railways, trams and in inland waterways, and a second of June 15 1919 did the same for the State railways. Generally, however, reductions in hours of labour have been secured by collec- tive agreements, which now cover practically every important indus- try, including transport and mining; for example, since April 1919 miners have worked a 7-hour day for the most part. The larger number of these collective agreements date from early in 1919. In their application the emphasis would appear to be upon the 48-hour week rather than the 8-hour day; as in France the working day is frequently extended by an hour or half-an-hour in order to permit of a shorter working day on Saturday. Most of the agreements limit the permissible number of hours which may be worked daily in excess of eight, usually to two.
GERMANY. Regulations issued on Nov. 23 1918 respecting the hours of work of industrial workers, including those employed in transport, established the general 8-hour day. These were followed up rapidly by a series of amending orders regulating exceptional cases, and on Jan. 24 1919 by an order relating to a provisional Agricultural Labour Act, which was to give legal force to an agree- ment, concluded between agricultural employers and employees, regulating conditions in agriculture and prescribing an 8-hour daily average during four months of the year, a lo-hour average during four months, and an li-hour average over the remaining four months. On the same date as that of the general order mentioned above, hours in baking and confectionery establishments were limited also to 8 daily.
The hours thus determined by legislation have, in certain cases, been still further reduced by agreement. For example, an agree- ment concluded between employers and workers on Jan. 22 1919 established the 8-hour day with a 6-hour Saturday for workers in the textile industry. This agreement was abandoned by the employ- ers early in 1921, however, and new agreements have for the most part reestablished the week of 48 hours.
The hours of work in mines were fixed by the regulations of Nov. 23 1918 at seven daily for underground workers, but later, in view of the economic position, the miners agreed to work an additional shift (seven hours) per week.
AUSTRIA. The Act of Dec. 19 1918 (reenacted Dec. 17 1919 with some changes) provided that " the hours of work in industrial under- takings carried on as factories shall not exceed 8 hours in 24, not including breaks in work." The Act further limited the working hours of women and young persons to 44 in the week. Instructions issued on Feb. 12 1919 regulated the application of the Act in con- tinuous industries, railways and other special cases.
An Act of April 3 1919 made similar provision for employees in bakeries, and working hours in mines were regulated by the Act of July 28 1919, which again established the 8-hour day, with possi- bilities of further reduction in particularly unhealthy places.
The 8-hour day was, however, established much earlier in some Austrian industries (e.g. lithography since 1914) by agreement, and has been extended to branches of industry not covered by the above Acts, e.g. woodworkers, by the same method. On March I 1921 a lo-hour day in agriculture was instituted by collective agreement.
RUMANIA. An administrative regulation of July I 1919 insti- tuted the 8-hour day in the national printing offices. The rule was extended to the State match and tobacco factories, railways and other State enterprises. Collective agreements secured the same end in the metal, carpentry and printing trades in Bucharest during the early months of 1919, and in the petroleum industry in Nov. of the same year. In one province (Ardeal) a Decree of May 21 1919 prescribed the 8-hour day in industry, mines and quarries, and in commercial establishments generally.
SPAIN. Legislation on the 8-hour day in Spain commenced with the Royal Decree of March II 1902, which applied to the employees of the Ministry of Finance. After the war, the same working day was extended by further decrees to building workers (March 15 1919), and to workers generally (April 3 1919 to come into force from Oct. I 1919).
Regulations issued Oct. 9 1919 determined the hours to be worked at sea. The engine-room hands work an 8-hour day and 48-hour week at sea and in port ; the hours of deck-hands vary with the size and nature of the vessel and its position. In the tropics the limit is 8 hours per day; elsewhere 10 or exceptionally 12.
Miners' hours were fixed by an Act of Dec. 27 1910 at 10 daily for surface workers and 9 for underground workers. The above-men- tioned decree of April 3 1919 extended the 8-hour day to both cate- gories. Subsequently, by an order of Oct. 10 1919, the hours of underground workers were reduced to 7, the reason given being that this was necessary in order that the surface workers should not be compelled to work more than eight.
Finally, an Eight-Hour Day Order of Jan. 15 1920 applied the Decree of April 3 1919 to workers generally, and specified the per- missible exceptions. The only class of workers excepted by name from the application of this order are domestic servants, but a
second order of the same date specifies many other classes, including agricultural workers engaged in the care of livestock, and hotel and restaurant waiters. In a large number of trades the 8 and 48 rule had been secured by collective agreement before the coming into force of the above royal decree and orders.
BELGIUM. An Act passed on June 8 1921 established the 8 and 48 rule in industry generally, but from the end of 1919 it had been almost universally adopted, usually by agreement, as in diamond- cutting, bootmaking and the manufacture of musical instruments (June 2 1919), in quarries (April 17 1919), coal-mines (Dec. I 1919) : on Jan. I 1920 furnace workers secured the 8-hour day, and on Jan. I 1921 it was extended to bookbinders also. Most, though not all other industries were already covered before these dates, so that the Act recently passed made little actual difference in the situation beyond the change from agreement to legislation. The Act of June 8 provided further that the same or similar regulations should come into force within one year for commercial workers, including employ- ees in retail shops, hotels, restaurants and public houses. A 7-hour day is already observed in some commercial establishments, particu- larly in Antwerp, but the working of overtime is fairly general.
NETHERLANDS. An Act providing for the regulation of hours of labour and for the prohibition in certain cases of work in dangerous trades was adopted on Nov. I 1919, and was put into force from Oct. 24 1920. _ Broadly speaking, the Act provided that the limit of hours of work in factories and workshops should be 8 in the day and 45 in the week; for outdoor employees of hotels, shops, offices, etc., 10 in the day and 55 in the week (with the possibility of a reduction in these hours by administrative regulations); for office workers indoors, 8 in the day and 45 in the week; for shop and pharmacy workers indoors 10 in the day and 55 in the week; for young persons employed in cafs and hotels, 9 hours in the day, and so forth. This is the most detailed and comprehensive hours-of-Iabour act in existence. A noteworthy feature is the 45-hour limit for the week's work. In establishing this, however, the Act did no more than sanc- tion legislatively or re-affirm what had been already achieved in a large number of industries by collective agreement and by earlier legislation. In practice the 45-hour week means that the worker has Saturday afternoon free and that the " English week-end " is firmly established in the Netherlands. Since the passing of the Act collective agreements have tended to make the 8 and 45 rule even more general than does the Act itself.
The Act had not up to 1921 been applied to navigation, but by agreements barge and boatmen have secured a lo-hour day, and the engine-room staff on seagoing vessels the 8-hour day ; the tendency is for collective agreements for maritime workers generally to be based on the 8-hour day and the " English week-end."
DENMARK. The Factory Act of April 29 1913 was amended by an Act of Feb. 12 1919, which introduced the 8-hour day in under- takings working continuously day and night, for workers engaged on continuous processes. By decree the 8-hour day was subse- quently extended to the State railways, posts and telegraphs and customs offices. The municipal authorities of Copenhagen and cer- tain other of the larger towns have granted the same hours to their employees generally.
For the most part, however, reductions of hours in Denmark have been secured rather by the method of collective agreement than by legislation. One such agreement made on May 17 1919, and covering over 150,000 workers in several industries, established the 8 and 48 rule.
A Commission on Working Hours was appointed on Feb. 28 1919. Its report proposed the adoption of the 8 and 48 rule.
SWEDEN. The Act of Oct. 17 1919 relating to the limitation of working hours, applies to " every undertaking, industrial or other- wise, in which more than four workers are ordinarily employed on account of an employer and also to every such undertaking carried on in any town or borough or municipality the population of which . . . exceeds 1,500, although the number of workers employed therein may be less than four." The Act imposes the 8 and 48 rule. A second Act regulates the hours during which work may be done in bakeries; generally speaking, it prohibits night and Sunday work.
An Act of Oct. 24 1919 limits the hours of seamen. The permit- ted hours vary with the size of the vessel and the nature and extent of its voyages. For engineers, greasers and trimmers on vessels carry- ing not less than 3 men of these categories the hours must not exceed 16 in 2 days, and similarly for firemen on vessels with engines of more than 250 H.P. engaged in ocean or North Sea trade, and on vessels of 600 H.P. or over in more restricted trade. For other sea- men the g-hour day is the general rule, though exceptions are per- mitted (up to 24 hours in two days) provided the weekly total does not exceed 63. On a vessel lying in port the limit is 8 hours daily (7 in the tropics).
NORWAY. The Norwegian legislature adopted in Aug. 1918 an Act limiting the weekly hours of labour in industry to 48, with a daily maximum of 8J. Most industrial establishments, including mines, are covered by it, with the exception of those in which the number of employees is less than 5 and in which no motive power (of greater strength than I H.P.) is used.
An Act of July n 1919 restricted the hours of seamen (deck- hands and engine-room staff) to 8 hours daily (7 in the tropics), and limited the hours during which the stewards, cooks and other
