density is the greatest. As a radio wave passes into the ionosphere, it loses some of its energy to the free electrons and ions present there. Since the amount of absorption of the radio-wave energy varies with the density of the ionospheric layers, there is no fixed relationship between distance and signal strength for ionospheric propagation. Absorption fading occurs for a longer period than other types of fading, since absorption takes place slowly. Under certain conditions, the absorption of energy is so great that communication over any distance beyond the line of sight becomes difficult.
Although fading because of absorption is the most serious type of fading, fading on the ionospheric circuits is mainly a result of multipath propagation.
Multipath Fading
MULTIPATH is simply a term used to describe the multiple paths a radio wave may follow between transmitter and receiver. Such propagation paths include the ground wave, ionospheric refraction, reradiation by the ionospheric layers, reflection from the earth's surface or from more than one ionospheric layer, and so on. Figure 1-11 shows a few of the paths that a signal can travel between two sites in a typical circuit. One path, XYZ, is the basic ground wave. Another path, XFZ, refracts the wave at the F layer and passes it on to the receiver at point Z. At point Z, the received signal is a combination of the ground wave and the sky wave. These two signals, having traveled different paths, arrive at point Z at different times. Thus, the arriving waves may or may not be in phase with each other. A similar situation may result at point A. Another path, XFZFA, results from a greater angle of incidence and two refractions from the F layer. A wave traveling that path and one traveling the XEA path may or may not arrive at point A in phase. Radio waves that are received in phase reinforce each other and produce a stronger signal at the receiving site, while those that are received out of phase produce a weak or fading signal. Small alterations in the transmission path may change the phase relationship of the two signals, causing periodic fading.
Figure 1-11.—Multipath transmission.
Multipath fading may be minimized by practices called SPACE DIVERSITY and FREQUENCY DIVERSITY In space diversity, two or more receiving antennas are spaced some distance apart. Fading does not occur simultaneously at both antennas. Therefore, enough output is almost always available from one of the antennas to provide a useful signal.
In frequency diversity, two transmitters and two receivers are used, each pair tuned to a different frequency, with the same information being transmitted simultaneously over both frequencies. One of the two receivers will almost always produce a useful signal.
Selective Fading
Fading resulting from multipath propagation varies with frequency since each frequency arrives at the receiving point via a different radio path. When a wide band of frequencies is transmitted simultaneously, each frequency will vary in the amount of fading. This variation is called SELECTIVE FADING. When selective fading occurs, all frequencies of the transmitted signal do not retain their original phases and relative amplitudes. This fading causes severe distortion of the signal and limits the total signal transmitted.
Frequency shifts and distance changes because of daily variations of the different ionospheric layers are summarized in table 1-1.
1-9
