quirements of the soldier, and have during the last sixteen years instituted gymnasiums at Aldershott, Gibraltar, Malta, and elsewhere, the teachers in which have, for the ino^t part, passed under the care of Mr Maclaren of Oxford, one of the principal authorities on the subject in England. Without entering into details, it may be admitted that the physical condition of the people, if not actually deteriorat ing, is not improving, and it is a significant fact that within the last year or two it has been found necessary to lower the standard in the British army, and that Dr Ord, in his report for 1869, states that out of 5567 boys 4410 were rejected as under the standard of width of chest and height. We have already referred to the tendency to rely on the casual outdoor sports for maintaining the physique of the population, and to a great extent to depreciate systematic gymnastic exercises and physical education. That in some quarters, however, this opinion is not entertained is shown from the fact that tho London School Board has appointed Miss Lofving of the Stockholm Training College to instruct certain of their teachers so as to fit them for teaching the girls in the schools. It is to be regretted that in the blind asylums so little is done for the physical education of the inmates. An institution in Milan provides for the training | of ricketty children by carefully regulated gymnastic exer cises ; but this institution seems to be the only one of its
kind in Europe.To show that the importance of gymnastics has not been overstated, we may describe the effects produced on twelve non-commissioned officers sent by the military authorities to be trained as teachers for the British army by Mr Maclaren. The men ranged from nineteen to twenty- nine years of age, and in height from 5 feet 5 inches to 6 feet. In Mr Maclaren s own words, " the muscular additions to the arms and shoulders and the expansion of the chest were so great as to have absolutely a ludicrous and embar rassing result, for before the fourth month several of the men could not get into their jackets and tunics without assistance, and when they had got them on they could not get them to meet down the middle by a hand s breadth." In a month more they could not get into them at all, and new clothing had to be procured, pending the arrival of which the men had to go to and from the gymnasium in their greatcoats.
Although there is some diversity of opinion among teachers of gymnastics as to the relative value of the different exercises, some holding that "free exercises" are sufficient, others that certain mechanical appliances are necessary, yet all agree that, to ensure healthy and perfect development of the organs of the body, a course of gymnastics must commence with such simple exercises as walk ing, running, jumping, &c. The introductory course ordinarily consists of "movements and positions" and the use of dumb-bells and bar-bells. In some French gymnasiums, especially those presided over by M. Laisne of Paris, an instrument invented and called by him a "xylofer" is in use, consisting of a wooden stick strengthened and weighted with a rod of iron, and corresponding apparently to the bar-bell of English teachers. Another form of movable apparatus, also in use in some Continental schools, consists of sticks on which slide wooden spheres of from 6 to 7 inches diameter, prevented from slipping off by india-rubber rims at each end. The movements which accompany the use of the stick are intended to expand the chest and increase the power of the muscles of the back. In stretching the arms outwards from the bent position, tho spheres fly outwards and very much increase the energy of the movement.
For the preliminary exercises with movable apparatus, the dumb bell is that usually selected. It was in use in England in the time of Elizabeth. It has many advantages over the Indian club, the practice of the dumb-bell requiring a less amount of room, and not presenting the risk the club does of overstraining the body by its unskilful use.
The dumb-bell admits of being exactly proportioned to the individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in weight as his strength increases. The exercises also that may be performed with it give employment to all parts of the body and to both sides equally. The bar is simply a two-handed dumb-bell. Next in order come walking, running, and leaping, the exercises being so regulated that both the distance and speed are gradually increased. The leaping rope is suspended from a beam, and enables the leaper to clear a barrier at the same time that it gives employment to both the upper and lower limbs. The leaping pole is usually made of ash, and varies from 8 to 10 feet in length. Its use may be left to the pleasure of the pupil after he has acquired some dexterity with the leaping rope.
The horizontal beam is a round wooden beam so mounted that it may be moved up and down. The exercises on this are chiefly balancing the body in the sitting and erect posture, and when moving along it.
The vaulting bar differs from the preceding in being somewhat thinner, so as to be easily grasped by the hand. The appropriate exercises on it have for their object the strengthening of the muscles of the upper extremity and loins. The vaulting horse allows of a wider range of exercises, and requires a greater amount of strength and dexterity. The muscles of the upper and lower limbs and trunk are all benefited by its use. The fixed parallel bars are used to develop the muscles of the trunk and upper limbs, but chiefly the former. The movable parallel bars may be used fur the same- exercises as the preceding. The trapc~e consists of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a height of 4 or 5 feet from the floor. Considerable practice is required to perform the exercises on this machine with dexterity and neatness. The horizontal bar, the bridge ladder, the plank, the inclined plane, the prepared uall, and the mast, and several modifications of these that are used, permit of a great variety of exercises.
In "calisthenics" the exercises are more directed to ensure grace and ease in the several movements of the body than muscular development, and are, therefore, closely allied to the "movements and positions" or "free exercises" of the gymnast. Among these exercises dancing takes a prominent part, being at once healthful and graceful.
See Combe s Education, its Frincijjlcs and Practice, edltedliy Jolly ; Maclaren s Physical Education ; the various works (in French) of Prof. N. Laisne, Capt. Docx, and Dr Le Blond ; and numerous pamphlets by Dr Roth.
GYMNOTUS. See Eel and Electricity.
GYNÆCOLOGY (from the Greek yw??, ywcu/cos, n woman, and Aoyos), that branch of medicine which con cerns the pathology and treatment of affections peculiar to the female sex. See Medicine.
GYOMA, an old market-town in the Truns-Tibiscan county of Be ke s, Hungiry, is situated on the banks of tho Koros main stream, 46 57 N. lat., 20 50 E. long. It has a fine town-hall, Roman Catholic, Calvinist, and Lutheran churches, a Jews synagogue, tax, post, and telegraph offices, a brewery, several elegant private resi dences, and a large station on the Szolnok-Arad Railway. The soil of the surrounding country, though in some places clayey, is in others of a rich and productive character, and the inhabitants succeed in raising plentiful crops of wheat, mangcorn, barley, millet, and maize, besides cultivating several kinds of orchard fruit and grapes. The mere con siderable landholders rear great numbers of sheep, pigs, and horned cattle. An abundant supply of fish and water fowl is yielded by the Koros, which is here spanned over by a wooden bridge and by the railway. Enormous quantities of firewood are floated down the stream on rafte. The fields are protected from floods by a large dike, whilst a similar service is rendered by the Nagy-Iviln, Csergetyii, Jokai, and Ne met trenches, which usually become dry during summer. In 1870 the population of Gyoma was 9907, by nationality Magyars. Before 1682 three other communes, viz., Ege, P6, and Nyarszeg, stood on the wide- spreading tract belonging to Gyoma. In that year they were, however, completely destroyed, and now only traces of their former existence remain.
county, Hungary, is situated at the foot of the Matra, south-west of Eger (Erlau), and is connected by a branch line with the Budapest-Miskolcz royal state railway, 47 47 N. lat., 19 59 E. long. Gyongyos is the seat of a court of justice, and of a board of taxes, and contains three churches, a large monastic establishment belonging to the Franciscans, a gymnasium, manufactories of leather, hats, and woollen cloth, and distilleries. The town carries on a brisk trade, especially in the Vissontaer and Egri (Erlauer)
red wines, which are produced in great Quantities in the