quered tribes that dwelt beyond ; but neither of them men tions when or by whom it was built. Another century onwards and Spartian, one of the Scriptores Histories Augastce, states that the emperor Hadrian was the first to rear a wall across Britain (circa 120 a.d.) as a defence against the northern barbarians. It was, he adds, 80 miles in length. The same author in his life of Severus tells us that emperor also raised a wall from sea to sea (circa 208 a.d.). Aurelius Victor, who flourished about the year 360 a.d., ascribes to Severus the building of a wall in Britain, employing almost the words of Spartian ; while his con temporary, Eutropius, makes a similar statement, adding, however, that this rampart was 32 (according to another reading, 132) miles long, and erected for the defence of certain portions of the country, which Severus had recon quered for Rome. Another possible wall-builder is intro duced to us in the early years of the 5th century by the poet Claudian, who represents Britain as indebted to Stilicho, the successful general of the emperors Theodosius I. and Honorius, for some protection of this nature against the attacks of the Scots, Picts, and Saxons. Lastly, Gildas, our earliest native historian, asserts that the Britons them selves built a wall to aid them in warding off the assaults of the Picts and Scots, and that another was constructed by the Romans with native assistance, just before their final abandonment of the island. Both statements are repeated by Bede, who identifies the former of these struc tures with Antonine s wall and the latter with the more
famous fortification near his own monastery of JarrowFounding on such unsatisfactory if not conflicting data, modern writers have been led to give various answers to the questions When and by whom was the Roman Wall built? The limits of the present article do not admit of any discussion of the subject, and those who wish to see these questions fully examined, as well as to read an account of the inscriptions and other antiquities discovered from time to time along the line of the Wall, are referred to the list of works given below, more especially to Dr J. C. Brace s exhaustive treatise. For others the following summary may be sufficient.
Gordon, to whom we owe one of the earliest surveys of the Wall, is of opinion that the Vallum was the work of Hadrian, and the Mums of Severus. Horsley believed that the stations and the northern rampart of the Vallum were raised by Agricola, the ditch of the Vallum and its remain ing mounds byHadrian, and the stone wall with its castles, towers, and its great military way by Severus. Dean Merivale, while admitting that camps and mounds may have been erected on the isthmus by Hadrian and Severus, supposes that the stations were faced with masonry and the work planned as well as partly executed by Theodosius, his designs being afterwards fully carried out about 400 a.d. by Stilicho, in orders issued from Gaul. But others, and foremost among them Dr Bruce, see in the fortification a unity of design that points it out as the work of one period and one mind, and have come to the conclusion that Hadrian was the builder of the whole. This view, as it does not exclude the probability that his engineers worked to some extent on lines already laid down by Agricola, and that Severus, before entering on his unfortunate campaign against the Caledonians, or after its close, repaired and strengthened the works of his predecessors, seems most consistent with the statements of ancient writers, with the testimony of inscriptions, and with the appearances pre sented by the relative position of the component parts of the fortification itself.
See Gordon s Itinerarium Scptcntrionale, London, 1727; Horsley s Britannia, Romana, London, 1732 ; Button s History of the Roman Wall, London, 1813; Hodgson s Roman Wall, dc., Newcastle, 1841 ; M Lauchlan s Survey of the Roman Wall, made in the years 1852-54 ; Brace s Roman Wall, 3d ed. , London, 1863.
HADRUMETUM, or Adrumetum (the name appears in the Greek writers in a great variety of forms A.8pvfj.rj, A.8pv[j,r)<s, A8pv//.?7Tos, ASpoi^iTTos , ASpa/^ros), a city on the African coast of the Mediterranean on the Sinus Neapolitanus or Gulf of Hamamet. A Phoanician colony of earlier date than Carthage, in course of time it became subservient to the imperial city, and fell along with it under the power of the Romans. On the subdivision of the Roman province of Africa Propria, it became the capital of Byzacium. By Trajan it was made a colony, as is evidenced by the grandiloquent inscriptions preserved by Gruter Col. Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Iladrumetina. From the devastation inflicted by the Vandals it was restored by Justinian, and in consequence it bore for some time the name of Justiriianopolis.
The identification of Hadrumetum is a matter of some difficulty. Most modern authorities agree in fixing it at Susa, but others con tend that Hamamet is the true site. Hitherto no inscription has been discovered which satisfactorily settles the point in favour of either ; for the fragments that are appealed to for the identification of Hamamet with Saigitis may possibly have been brought to the place of their discovery. The arguments in favour of each may be thus summarized. Susa agrees remarkably well, as Maltzan elabo rately maintains, with the position assigned to Hadrumetum by the Notitia and other ancient works in which the distances from place to place are given. The remains of ancient buildings, though few, prove undoubtedly that Susa is the site of some city of considerable importance, and the ruins now known as Makluba or the Fallen may be those of a great temple. We know that in the time of El- Bekri Susa still possessed a cothon or inner harbour (one of the chief features of Hadriimetum as described by the author of the African War], which may be recognized in the existing sandy plain 1500 feet wide between the two ancient moles, now distinguished as the Quarantine Mole and Fointe du Mole. The figures found by M. ])aux (Journ. Asiat., 1868) would of themselves have suggested that Susa was a Phoenician colony. Earth suggests that the name Susa is probably a corruption of 2ojou<rot. In favour of Hamamet Mr J. E. Davis argues that the scenery near Susa agrees with that of Ruspina described by the author of the African War ; that the ab sence of ruins at Hamamet is accounted for by the clouds of sand swept down upon the site ; that there are clear traces of a cothon at Hamamet ; and that the modern name Haimamot or Tent of Death corresponds exactly with the hypothetical Hedermot or Chamber of Death of the Phoenicians. On the whole the argument appears to be on the side of Susa.
For further details see Earth, Wanderunyen (lurch die Kilstcn- Idndcr des Mittelmeeres, 1840 ; Guerin, Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis, 1862; Nathan Davis, Ruined Cities, 1862; Maltzan, Reise in dcr Retjentschaften Tunis und Tripoli, 1870.
commonly called piles, a frequent and distressing malady. Two varieties are described. They are named from their situation external and internal, as they are without or within the opening of the anus. The external pile is an overgrowth of the thin dark-coloured skin round the opening ; there is most frequently more than one present ; the skin, lax and redundant, hangs in folds. The internal pile lies altogether within the opening, although it may appear externally protruding through the anus when any pressure from above is applied, as when the patient strains at stool. It is covered by, and composed of an overgrowth of, the mucous membrane lining the bowel. There may be several internal piles. The internal pile is sessile or pedunculated. The external pile is of a pale colour. The internal pile is moist, vascular, and of a cherry-red colour; it is apt to inflame, and the inflammation is associated with heat, pain, and general uneasiness. Ulceration and bleeding are common symptoms of the internal pile, hence the term "bleeding" or "bloody piles." Both varieties are probably due to the same primary cause an enlargement of the veins in this region. Any cause which, by pressing on the large abdominal veins, retards the upward flow of blood to the heart will give rise to piles ; such are constipation, disease of the liver, pregnancy. General weakness involving a want of tone in the blood-vessels may act as a predisposing
cause. The exciting cause is frequently exposure to damp,