an English watchmaker established in Paris, was the first who in that city attempted the construction of chronometers for finding the longitude; and this he did in 1724. In 1736 the chronometers of the English artist Harrison were tried at sea. In France, however, there were no chrono meter-makers of note after Sully, till Pierre le Roy and Ferdinand Berthoud, between whom there was some dis cussion about the priority of their discoveries and improve ments. Ferdinand Berthoud s chronometers were long the most esteemed of any in France. Louis Berthoud, his nephew and successor, introduced some improvements, and made chronometers of a smaller size and therefore more portable. Berthoud was a member of the French Institute, a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the Legion of Honour. He was regular in his habits, and retained the use of his faculties to the last. He died of hydrothorax, at his country house, in the valley of Mont- morency, in 1807, aged about eighty. The principal of his published works are Essais sur Vltorlogerie, 2d edit., 1786, 2 vols. 4to ; two Tracta on Chronometers, 1773 ; De la Mesure du Temps, 1787, 4to ; Les Longitudes par la Mesure du Temps, 1775, 4to ; a Tract on Chronometers, 1782, 4to ; Ilistoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Hor- loges, 1802, 2 vols. 4to ; L Art de conduire et de regler les Pendules et les Montres, 1760, 1 2mo. The tract last named, containing directions suited to general readers for regu
lating clocks and watches, passed through several editions.BERTINORO (identified, on conjecture, with the ancient Forum Druentinorum), a city of Italy, in the province of Emilia and district of Forli, the seat of the bishop of the united dioceses of Forlimpopoli and Bertinoro. It stands on a hill, below which the River Ronco flows, and is cele brated for the excellence of its wine. Population, 6540. Long. 12 2 30" E., lat. 44 8 34 // N.
BERWICK, James Fitzjames, Duke of, marshal and peer of France, was a natural son of James, duke of York, afterwards James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill, sister of the great duke of Marlborough. He was born at Moulius, August 21, 1670. He received his education in France, studying successively at Juilly, at the College of Plessis, and at the College of Fleche. At the age of fifteen, his father having succeeded to the throne, he was sent to learn the business of a soldier under the famous general of the empire, Charles of Lorraine. He served his first campaigns in Hungary, and was present at the siege of Buda and the battle of Mohacz. In 1687 he returned to England, was made a Knight of the Garter, and created duke of Berwick. After the Revolution he served under James II. in the campaign in Ireland, was in one engage ment severely wounded, and was present at the battle of the Boyna For a short time he was left in Ireland as commander-in-chief, but his youth and inexperience unfitted him for the post, and he was a mere puppet in stronger hands. In 1692 he was recalled to France, and took service in the French army. He fought under Marshal Luxembourg in Flanders, took part in the battles of Steinkerk and Landen (Neerwinden), and was taken prisoner at the latter. He was, however, immediately exchanged for the duke of Ormond, and afterwards he served under Villeroi. In 1696 the duke of Berwick took a prominent part in a plot for a Jacobite insurrection, but the scheme came to nothing. In 1702 he served under the duke of Burgundy, and in the following year became naturalized as a Frenchman. In 1704 he first took com mand of the French army in Spain. So highly was he now esteemed for his courage, abilities, and integrity,, that all parties were anxious to have him on their side (Eloge, by Montesquieu). From Spain he was recalled to take the command against the Camisards in Languedoc, and when on this expedition he is said to have carried out with remorseless rigour the orders which he received from Versailles. About this time he was created marshal of France. He was then sent again to Spain to retrieve the affairs of that kingdom, and to prop up the tottering throne. In April 1707 he won the great victory of Almanza, an Englishman at the head of a French army, over the earl of Galvvay (comte de Ruvigny), a Frenchman at the head of an English army. The victory established Philip V. on the throne of Spain, although neither he nor his rival, the archduke, was present at the battle. Berwick was made a peer of France and grandee of Spain. In 1 708 he became commander-in-chief of the armies of France in Spain, in Flanders, on the Rhine, and on the Moselle. Through the four following years he gained fresh laurels by his masterly defence of Dauphiiie, and in 1713 he returned to Spain and took Barcelona. Three years later he was appointed military governor of the province of Guienne. In 1718 he found himself under the necessity of once more entering Spain with an army; and this timo he had to fight against Philip V., the king who owed chiefly to his courage and skill the safety of hi* throne. One of tbe marshal s sons, known as duke of Liria, was settled in Spain, and was counselled by his father not to shrink from doing his duty and fighting for his sovereign. Many years of peace followed this campaign, and Marshal Berwick was not again called to serve in the field till 1733. He advised and conducted in 1734 the siege of Philipsburg on the Rhine, and while the siege was going on was killed by a cannon-shot, June 12 of that year. Cool, self-possessed, and cautious as a general, Marshal Berwick was at the same time not wanting in audacity and swiftness of action in a real crisis. He was careful of the lives of his men, and was also a rigid disciplinarian. Lord Bolingbroke pro nounced him the best great man that ever existed. Montes quieu said, " In the works of Plutarch I have seen at a distance what great men were ; in Marshal Berwick I have seen what they are." He married in 1695 a daughter of the earl of Clanricarde, by whom he had the son already mentioned. He married a second wife in 1699, by whom he had another son, known as Marshal Fitz-James. The Memoires of Marshal Berwick, revised, annotated, apd con tinued by the Abbe Hosk, were published by the marshal s grandson in 1778. An untrustworthy compilation bear ing the same title had been published about forty years earlier.
BERWICK-UPON-TWEED, a seaport town and muni cipal and parliamentary borough, at the mouth of the Tweed, in 55 46 N. lat. and 1 59 W. long., 300 miles N. by W. from London, and 47 E.S.E. from Edinburgh . Berwick proper is built chiefly on the declivity and flat summit of an elevation rising abruptly from the north side of the river. The liberties of the borough, commonly called " Berwick Bounds," containing an area of nearly eight square miles, extend to the N. and W., and form the N.E. extremity of England. The borough also includes (since 1835) the townships of Tweedmouth and Spittal on the south side of the river, the latter a fishing and watering place on the coast, the former a manufacturing village connected with Berwick by a bridge. The town has a pleasing appearance from the neighbouring heights, especially at full tide, sea and river, ramparts, bridges and pier, buildings ancient and modern, and the red-tiled roofs of the houses contributing to the view. The principal streets are wide, well built, and well paved, there being a remarkable absence, in so ancient a town, of narrow streets and old houses.
United Kingdom, The present ramparts were built in the reign of Elizabeth. To the north and east they arc formed
of earth faced with stone ; bastions with cavaliers are