generally very minute ; and where the current text is corrupt it is not from MSS., but from the versions, or from conjecture, that help must be sought. On the other hand, a more accurate edition of the Massoretic text is certainly wanted. But such an edition must pay special regard to vowel points and accents, which Kennicott and De Rossi neglect, and must consult MSS. of the Massora as well as of the text. The most valuable edition which notes variations not affecting the consonantal text is the Mantuan Bible of 1742, 1744, with the notes of Norzi (K. Jedidiah Solomon of NorciaV The best recent texts are S. Baer s Leipsic editions of Genesis (1869), Psalms (1861), and Isaiah (1872). Among easily accessible editions of the whole Old Testament, those of Jablonsky (Berlin, 1699) and J. II. Michaelis (Halle, 1720) have the best reputation.
The Greek New Testament was first printed in the Complutensian Polyglott (1514), but a delay in the publication enabled Froben of Basel to preoccupy the market with an edition hastily prepared by Erasmus from very recent codices. In subsequent editions a good many changes were made, partly after the Complutensian text, and in the third edition (1522) the spurious passage, 1 John v. 7, appeared for the first time. But it was still a recent and therefore an un satisfactory text that was represented, and this radical defect was not corrected by the editors who followed Erasmus, though some of them, and notably Th. Bcza, possessed, and to some extent used, better MSS. than Erasmus consulted. Their beauty and conveni ence, rather than the merit of their text, procured a great currency for the editions of Eobert Stephens (0 mirificam editions, 1546, 1549 ; royal edition, 1550), and his text of 1550, or the Elzevir text of 1624, which, though mainly based on Beza, is very nearly identical with the other, came to be regarded as the "received text," which subsequent editors were long afraid to change. But materials for a better text were gradually accumulated by Walton in the London Polyglott (1657), Cureellacus (165S), Fell (1675), and above all by John Mill in his great edition of 1707. These labours were viewed with much jealousy by the hyper-orthodox ; and even as late as 1751, Wetstein, after long and most valuable studies, could find a publisher only on consideration that his amendments on the received editions should not stand in the text. Some important steps, however, were taken in the interval between Mill and Wetstein. Bentley sketched in 1720 the plan of an edition which should restore the text of the 4th century ; and Bengel in 1734 actually published an amended text, though readings which had not been given in any previous edition were admitted only in the Apocalypse. Bengel was the first who classed MSS. under families, as Asiatic and African respectively. The next great critical editor after Bc-ngel and Wetstein was J. J. Griesbach, whose chief edition appeared 1796, 1806. Griesbach gave an exaggerated importance to the doctrine of families of MSS. ; and his edition was constructed on the principle of adhering to the received text, unless the reasons to the contrary were irresistible; but his industry and critical skill give him a very high place among editors. Griesbach was followed by the Roman Catholic Scholz, whose labours were more pretentious than valuable ; and at length the great critic Lachmann (1842, 1850) threw aside all traditional re spect for the received text, and sought to restore the text of the 4th century by the aid of a very small number of select MSS., together with the Latin versions as given in the oldest copies, and the citations of the earliest fathers. The idea was fruitful, though the material employed was too scanty. Since Lachmann published his edition our knowledge of the most ancient authorities has been greatly increased. New MSS, have been added, notably Tischendorf s X ; and the MSS. formerly known have been edited or collated with much greater accuracy. The most distinguished labourers in this work were Tischendorf and Tregelles. In addition to numerous editions and collations of ancient copies, Tischendorf put forth a series of critical editions, of which the eighth (Leipsic, 1865-1872) contains the completest critical commentary yet published. The great edition of Tregelles (1857-72) rests exclusively on the most ancient authority, resembling Lachmann s work in conception, though using much more copious materials. This edition, as well "as Tischendorf s VIII., lacks the prolegomena, both editors having been struck down by paralysis before their work was complete.
The recent versions, subsequent to the invention of printinf and the revived study of the original tongues, demand a word in conclusion. New Latin versions naturally accompanied many of the early editions of the original text. Thus Erasmus gave many cor rections of the Vulgate in his Greek Testament, the Complutensian gives an interlinear version of the LXX., the Genoa " Polyglott Psalter of 1516 gives renderings both of the Hebrew and of the Chaldee. Even such works as these, designed as they were for scholars, gave offence from their appearance of undermining the authority of the Vulgate ; and it was the Reformation, in its revolt against mere human authoritj , that first demanded open circulation of vernacular versions from the original tongues. From the time of Luther s version (New Testament, 1522 ; complete Bible, 1534) we may distinguish four classes of versions.
1st, Versions adopted by Protestant countries or churches. Such are Luther s Bible in Germany; the Dutch Bible of the Commission of the Synod of Dort, 1637 ; the English Authorized Version of 1611 ; the Genevan French Bible, formed by successive revisions of Olivetan s version of 1535 ; the Danish of 1550, based on Luther, revised in 1607, 1647 ; the Swedish, 1541. Most of these national Bibles were preceded by earlier Protestant versions, which they supersede. See especially English Bible. Revisions of the na tional versions have of late years been undertaken in Norway, Holland, and Germany, as well as in England.
2d, Versions which never held any other place than that of private contributions to Biblical exegesis. Such are among older works the Latin Old Testament of Junius and Tremellius, and the New Testament of Beza. These versions belong to the history of exegesis.
3d, Missionary versions.
4th, Roman Catholic versions. The Council of Trent declared the Vulgate version authentic, and forbade interpretations of Scripture not in conformity with the consent of the fathers. Vernacular versions subject to these restrictions were published as the antidote to Protestant Bibles. Such are the Rhemish and Douay versions in English. Other Roman Catholic versions owe their origin to evangelical tendencies within the church. Jansenism, in particular, produced the French version of De Sacy (Mons, 1G07), and otherwise stimulated the study of Scripture.
Literature.—Full discussion of some of the topics glanced at in this article must be sought in treatises on individual books or critical problems of the Old and New Testaments. But on most points it svill be sufficient to refer to works on Biblical Introduction. The history of this branch of theology with lists of the principal older books some of which, including the writings of R. Simon, Carpzov, and Eichhorn, are still of value is given in most recent works on the subject. Of these it may be sufficient to mention for the Old Testament De Wette s Einleitmifj, rewritten by Schrader (Berlin, 1.8G9), full of condensed information; Block s posthumous Einleituncj (3d edition, 1870), less complete in detail and now rather behind date, but very clear and instructive; Keil s Einleitun^ (3d edition, 1873), which is strictly conservative. The two last are translated. Kuenen s Historisch-Kritisch Onder- zoek, of which there is a French translation, is very full, but the author has considerably changed his views in the History of t/te Religion of Israel (Haarlem, 180070) of which there is an English translation. Ewald s History of Israel is important, and is also accessible to the English reader ; with it must be taken his books on the Prophets and Poets of tlie Old Covenant. Recent English literature on the Old Testament is not very remarkable, but Dr S. Davidson s Introduction gives a full account of foreign investigations. The history of the Old Testament in the Christian church has been written by L. Diestel (Geschichte des Alien Testamentes, u.s.w., Jena, 18G9). For the New Testament, De Wette, Bleek, and Davidson may again be consulted. A very instructive book is Keuss s Geschichte der Heiligen Schriftcn Neuen Testaments (5th edition, Bruns wick, 1874). The most recent general work proceeding from the Tubingen school is liilgenfeld s llistorisch- Kritische Einleitung in das Ntue Testament (Leipsic, 1875). On the canon there arc several important works by Crcdner in German, and an English History of the Canon of the New Testament, by Dr Westcott (4th edition, 1875). On the text of the New Testament the English reader may con sult Tregelles s volume, contributed to Home s Introduction (1S5G), and Scrivener s Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament (2d edition, 1874). Le Long s Bibliotheca Sacra, continued by Masch (Halle, 1778-1790) gives a full account of editions of the original text and versions, which may be supplemented by reference to Do Bossi s Annales Htbrceo-ti/pographici (XV. Cent., Parma, 1795; MDI. to MDXL., Banna, 1799), and Reuss s Ptilliotheca Novi Testamenti Greed (Brunswick, 1872). Detailed references to other recent books will be found in the works already cited.
