of thought and conscience, provided that there was no offence against religion, morals, or laws. All christians, of whatever denomination, were made citizens, eligible to office. Dissenters were allowed, by an edict of toleration, to build their own churches, provided they could insure the support of the pastor. The disabilities of the Jews were modified, and they were admitted to schools and universities. These institutions were extended and encouraged, while at the same time convents were curtailed even when not suppressed. Rapid innovations of this character, carried out by despotic rules, could not pass unopposed, and Pius VI. made a journey to Vienna to counteract the mischiefs of liberalism—not obtaining much satisfaction. Joseph's desire for unity involved him in troubles. He wished the German language to be made universal in his dominions, and roused the Hungarians to revolt, while the Netherland provinces resolved on emancipating themselves from the Austrian yoke. He was successful as a disturber of established institutions, but not as the founder of a new constitution. Some measures he was obliged to retract, others were left as a heritage, to produce future turmoil. In 1787 Joseph engaged in war with Turkey, and raised an immense army; but the summer heats of 1788 saw twenty thousand Austrians in the hospitals; and Joseph contracted fever by visiting the sick. He returned to Vienna, was there apprised of the insurrection of the Netherlands, and after some months of suffering, died on the 20th February, 1790. Twice married, he left no issue, and was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II.—P. E. D.
JOSEPH (François Leclerc du Tremblay), commonly known as Le Père, or Father Joseph, was born at Paris in 1577, and died in 1638. He devoted himself to the conversion of the protestants of Saintonge, and gradually attained the highest position in his order. He is most celebrated as the friend, confidant, and agent of Cardinal Richelieu, in which capacity he may have served his master, but he sacrificed his own integrity. He entered readily into the intrigues of the time, and a cardinal's hat was awarded him; but he died before he received it.—B. H. C.
JOSEPH ALBO, Rabbi of Soria in Old Castile about 1415, the author of a celebrated book, "Sefer Ikkarim," in rabbinical Hebrew, a philosophic view of Judaic theology. It was published at Soncino in 1486, and consists of dissertations on what he thought were the fundamental doctrines of the Jewish faith, viz., the being and perfections of God; the reality of future punishments; and the revealed economy of the Mosaic law.
JOSEPH Ben Gorion. See Gorionides.
JOSEPH Ben Joshua Ben Meir Ha-Sefardi, was born at Avignon in 1497. He was the author of a history which, commencing with the creation, extended down to his own time, and was published at Venice in 1554. There is an English translation by Bialloblotsky, published at London in 1834.
JOSEPH BONAPARTE. See Bonaparte.
JOSEPH EMMANUEL, King of Portugal, one of the Braganza family, ascended the throne in 1750, and died 24th February, 1777, in the sixty-third year of his age. His reign was characterized by misfortune. In 1755 the great earthquake of Lisbon took place, which nearly destroyed the city; and in 1758 the monarch nearly lost his life by assassination, the courage of his coachman alone having prevented the success of the conspirators. It was supposed that the jesuits were at the bottom of the plot, and they were consequently expelled the kingdom, with confiscation of their property. Joseph was afterwards involved in disputes with the court of Rome, and in 1761 in a war with Spain. Towards the close of his life he retired from the active duties of government, and resigned the power to his queen, Maria of Spain.—P. E. D.
JOSEPHINE, first empress of the French, née Marie-Joseph-Rose-Tascher de la Pagerie, was born at Trois-Ilets in Martinique, on the 24th of June, 1763, the day on which the treaty was signed by which England restored that island to France. Her father seems to have been forced by poverty to become manager of a plantation. At thirteen the fair young Creole is described as already most fascinating, and at fourteen, taken to France, she was married to the Vicomte De Beauharnais. Of her two children by this marriage, the son, Eugene, became viceroy of Italy, and the daughter, Hortense, married to Louis, king of Holland, was the mother of the present emperor of the French. The union was a stormy one, and was suspended by a separation, during which Josephine revisited, in 1787, Martinique and her mother. Forced, three years later, to fly from the island and its political convulsions, on her return to France she was reconciled to her husband. Their second connection was not of long duration. The Vicomte De Beauharnais had been an active constitutionalist. Husband and wife were thrown into prison during the ascendancy of Robespierre, and the husband was guillotined. In prison Josephine became the friend of the future Madame Tallien (see Fontenay), and when the fall of Robespierre restored her to freedom, she shared in that lady's leadership of the new society which sprung into existence with the close of the Reign of Terror. The young Bonaparte was one of the victims of her fascination, and against the wishes of both her children, indeed not without some misgivings of her own, she became his wife. The date of their marriage, one purely civil—not supplemented by religious ceremony until 1804—was the 9th of March, 1796. A few days afterwards Napoleon left his bride to join the army of Italy, and to commence his career of victory. His letters of this period are full of affection, mingled with jealousy; for during his absence Josephine was gay among the gayest. At last she joined him at Milan where she was received with queenly honours, and lavished money with more than queenly extravagance. During his absence in Egypt the old accusations against her were repeated with such success that, on his return, he was about to separate from her. She recovered, however, her ascendant over him, and from that time forward seems to have been a loyal and affectionate wife, with only one striking fault—pecuniary extravagance. The influence of her attractions was exerted to promote his ambition. She co-operated with him in the coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire; and assuming a new dignity of demeanour when Napoleon became first consul, she conciliated to a certain extent the troublesome royalist party. His assumption of imperial power she steadily opposed, though not from any suspicion of the fate which awaited her. Even before the empire Talleyrand had advised a divorce from Josephine, and a marriage with a Bourbon princess, as likely to strengthen politically Napoleon's position. But it was not until after Wagram and a sojourn in Schönbrunn that he followed the evil counsel, and divorced the wife whom he dearly loved, to marry a frigid and heartless Austrian princess. The divorce was effected on the 16th December, 1809. In the little court of Malmaison, to which the divorced Josephine now retired to cultivate her flowers—always a passion with her—she was steadily visited by the high personages of the continent whom events brought to Paris. Napoleon wrote to her frequently, and saw her occasionally. His last visit to her was paid in the January of 1814, three months before his relegation to Elba. After the occupation of Paris, the allied monarchs did her personal homage at Malmaison. Alexander of Russia was walking in its gardens when, after an illness of some duration, the ex-empress died of a cancerous disease, and with Hortense and Eugene by her side, on the 29th of May, 1814. At least she was spared the catastrophe of Waterloo.—F. E.
JOSEPHUS, Flavius, the Jewish historian, was born at Jerusalem a.d. 37. The facts of his history are mainly derived from his own writings. He was well instructed in his youth, and had a remarkable capacity for learning. He tried each of the three Jewish sects, and decided for the Pharisees. About 63 he went to Rome on behalf of certain priests, whom Felix had sent there as prisoners on some slight pretext. Having obtained their acquittal, he returned home, and exerted himself to preserve peace between his countrymen and the Romans. When the revolt actually broke out, he says he only joined it after he found that it must go on. He was appointed to Galilee as a sort of governor, and with a pacific mission. If we may trust his own account, his conduct was marked by prudence, courage, and ability. John of Ghiscala and others endeavoured to ruin his credit, and to take his life; but he succeeded in defeating their attempts. On the approach of Vespasian his followers mostly abandoned him, and he retired to Tiberias, whence he sent to the senate, to inform them that if they did not help him he must succumb. But when Jotapata was besieged he directed its defence, and on its capture escaped to a cave with forty men. His retreat was discovered, but rather than surrender, his companions agreed to die by one another's hands. Lots were taken, and all perished except Josephus and one other, who gave themselves up to Vespasian, and their lives were spared. At the siege of Jerusalem he was present; and when the city was taken he saved the lives of many, including his own brother, and he also preserved copies of the sacred books. Titus conferred upon
