at Paris on the 17th September, 1836, aged eighty-eight. He was the nephew of Bernard de Jussieu, who also exercised a powerful influence on botany and on natural history in general. After completing his earlier studies, Antoine joined his uncle in Paris in 1765 at the age of seventeen, and there he prosecuted botany with vigour. In 1770 Jussieu took the degree of doctor of medicine, and was appointed assistant to Lemonnier in the botanical chair at the Jardin des plantes. Thus, at the early age of twenty-two he had to teach students the essential characters of plants cultivated in the Paris garden. The collection in the garden was at that time arranged according to the system of Tournefort. Shortly afterwards it became necessary to rearrange the plants, and Jussieu took advantage of this to adopt a new arrangement which had been suggested to him, by what had been done by his uncle in the garden of the Trianon. From the year 1774 to 1789 he was constantly occupied demonstrating to his class of botany; and as his new method was thus brought perpetually before him, he was able to alter and improve it. In his new system the vegetable kingdom was divided not according to certain arbitrary distinctions, but according to natural alliances or affinities in plants. The characters were taken from important characters connected with the embryo, and with the relations which the parts of the flower have to each other. He adapted also the simplicity and accuracy of Linnæus' definitions and descriptions to the exigencies of science. He made the generic characters as short as possible, and took the parts of fructification as the essential means of distinction. Instead of defining his classes and orders by a few artificial marks, he formed them from a view of all the most essential parts of structure; and thus he collected under the same group those plants which were most allied in that respect. In 1789, when Jussieu published his "Genera Plantarum," the political state of France was such as to interrupt all peaceful study, and accordingly he was compelled to mingle in the busy scenes of public life. In 1790 he became a member of the municipality of Paris, and was charged with the direction of the hospitals and charities of the city. In 1793 the Jardin du roi was reorganized under the name of Jardin des plantes and museum d'histoire naturelle, and Jussieu became professor of rural botany. He was afterwards appointed director and treasurer of the museum of natural history. In 1802 he again commenced his botanical writings, and continued his publications till 1820. He may be called the founder of the natural system of classification in botany. His uncle Bernard no doubt took the first step, but his nephew went far beyond him. In 1804 Jussieu became professor of materia medica in the faculty of medicine, and lectured specially on the agreement of the properties of plants with their botanical affinities. In 1822 he gave up his connection with the school of medicine, and in 1826 resigned his chair at the Garden of plants in favour of his son Adrien. His system, when first promulgated, was not appreciated as it ought to have been, and it was not till after the year 1820 that it became known in Britain by the writings of Robert Brown. Among Jussieu's works may be enumerated the following—"Memoir on the Family of Ranunculaceæ," which gained him a place in the Academy of Sciences in 1773; "Genera Plantarum;" "Principles of the Natural Method in Plants;" "Introduction to the History of Plants;" and numerous memoirs on natural orders, published in the Annales du Museum.—J. H. B.
JUSSIEU, Bernard de, uncle of the preceding, and also a very celebrated botanist, was born at Lyons in 1699. After being educated at the Jesuits' college at Lyons, he travelled with his brother Anthony in Spain and Portugal, and took his degree of doctor of medicine, first at Montpellier in 1720, and afterwards at Paris in 1726. In 1722 he was appointed subdemonstrator of botany in the Royal garden at Paris—an office which he held till his death in November, 1777. His knowledge was highly esteemed by his contemporaries—so much so, that Linnæus was accustomed to say, when a problem was proposed to him which he could not solve, "Aut Deus aut B. de Jussieu." He was the first who proved that fresh-water polypi are animals, not plants; and that the Cetacea (whales) ought to be classed, not with fishes, but with the mammalia. He was a member of the principal learned societies of Europe.—D. W. R.
JUSSIEU, Joseph de, brother of the preceding, was born at Lyons in 1704. Having acquired an extensive knowledge of medicine, botany, mathematics, and engineering, he was appointed to accompany La Condamine in the expedition which he undertook to Peru in 1735, in order to determine more exactly the form of the earth. Jussieu remained in South America till 1771, when he returned to France with his health utterly ruined. In 1743 he was elected a member of the Academy. To him we are indebted for the introduction of the heliotrope to our gardens. He died at Paris, 11th April, 1779.—D. W. R.
* JUSSIEU, Laurent Pierre de, a descendant of the celebrated botanists of that name, was born at Lyons in 1792. He has held various official appointments, and at one time sat as a deputy for Paris in the chamber; but his political career was obscure, and he was not re-elected. He has written a great many works, chiefly intended for the working classes and for children, for which he has been publicly rewarded.—W. J. P.
JUSSOW, Heinrich Christoph, German architect, was born at Cassel, October 9, 1754. He was educated with a view to the law; but preferring architecture, he in 1780 went to Paris, where he studied for two years under Wailly; then spent some time at Rome, Naples, &c., investigating the principal buildings, and finally, by order of the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, Wilhelm IX., proceeded to England to make himself acquainted with the laying out of the parks and gardens. Returning to Cassel in 1790, he was appointed director of public works; erected an additional wing to the palace of Wilhelmshöhe, and laid out the adjacent park; built a city gate, the Friedrichsthor; a church at Neustadt, &c. During the French occupation Jussow was continued in his office by King Jerome Bonaparte, for whom he designed the so-called Chinese gallery. On the return of Wilhelm, now elector, Jussow was commissioned to erect a new palace on a vast scale; but only the ground-story was completed at the death of Wilhelm in 1821, and it has not been carried farther. Jussow died July 26, 1825.—J. T—e.
JUSTEL, Christophe, a French protestant, profoundly versed in canon law, born at Paris, March 5, 1580. He was councillor and secretary to Henry IV., and private secretary of Henri de la Tour. During his whole life he took part in public affairs, and died at Paris in 1649. Du Pin says he knew the history of the middle ages better than any other man of his time. He compiled a "Codex Canonum Ecclesiæ universæ;" a "Codex Canonum Ecclesiæ Africanæ;" "A Codex Canonum ecclesiasticorum Dionysii Exigui," and edited the Nomocanon Photii; he also wrote some valuable historical works.—B. H. C.
JUSTEL, Henri, son of the preceding, and eminent for similar studies, was born at Paris in 1620. It was his delight to aid men of letters, to whom he communicated his books and manuscripts, and with whom he carried on an extensive correspondence. He succeeded his father as secretary of the king of France, and collected a library, very rich in manuscripts. He held in his house weekly an assembly of learned men. He numbered Locke, Leibnitz, Hickes, and many others among his friends, and presented some of his MSS. to the library at Oxford. In 1681 he came to England, where he received an appointment as librarian to Charles II., a post which he continued to occupy until his own death, September 24, 1693. His works are "Bibliotheca juris canonici veteris," and a "Collection of Travels in Africa and America." He also contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society of London.—B. H. C.
JUSTI, Johann Heinrich Gottlieb, was born at the commencement of the eighteenth century in Thuringia, and died in 1771. He studied at Jena, and served in the Prussian army. He afterwards resided at Leipsic and at Vienna, where he was professor of political economy and eloquence. In 1758 he went to live at Copenhagen, and subsequently removed to Berlin, where he became director of mines. In 1768 he was convicted of some malversations, and committed to prison, where he died. His works are numerous, and relate chiefly to political economy. He also wrote on philosophical and satirical topics.—B. H. C.
JUSTIN, "martyr" and "philosopher," was born at Flavia Neapolis, Sichem, in Samaria, in 103. A Greek by education as well as by descent, after vainly seeking satisfaction in the systems of the Stoics and the Peripatetics, of Pythagoras and of Plato, he rested at last in christianity, and, without accepting any office in the church, devoted himself to the propagation of the faith. Much of his life was passed at Rome, where he appeared still wearing the philosopher's cloak, and declaring himself the teacher of a "new philosophy." At Rome he presented his two "Apologies for Christianity" to the two emperors, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; and at Rome, in the time of the latter emperor, he eventually suffered martyrdom. Such scanty facts,
