landgrave, Ludwig VII., who furnished him with the means of prosecuting his studies at Göttingen. He entered the university in 1763, and for two years was permitted to gratify his encyclopædic tastes by attending lectures on all sorts of subjects. It was afterwards a matter of regret with him that during this period he was not confined, for the better forming of his mind, to the study of the higher mathematics and mechanics. When Kaestner, in succession to T. Mayer, was appointed director of the astronomical observatory, Lichtenberg was employed by him to observe the transit of Venus of June 19, 1769; and in connection with this engagement his name was mentioned at the court of George III. and in learned society in this country, in a way which prepared for him a cordial welcome on his subsequent visit to England. Through the influence of his patron the landgrave, Lichtenberg obtained the chair of mathematics at Göttingen in 1770, in which year he visited England, having undertaken to conduct home two English lads, sons of Admiral Swinton and Lord Boston, who had been prosecuting their studies on the continent. While in London, Lichtenberg was kindly entertained by his lordship and introduced to the best society. He visited the observatory at Richmond, forming there a friendship with Demainbray, and was received at court by his majesty with flattering cordiality. Returning to Göttingen he inaugurated his course of lectures by a discourse in German on the subject of probabilities in games of chance, the calculation of which, he conceived, had not been perfectly investigated by Pascal, D'Alembert, or Beguelin. In 1772-73 Lichtenberg was engaged in determining the latitude and longitude of Osnabrück and Stade. In 1774 he was admitted a member of the mathematical class of the Royal Society, Göttingen, the commentaries of which learned body contain most of his contributions to the exact sciences. In the same year, after preparing for the press the works of Tobias Mayer (only the first volume was printed), Lichtenberg again set out for England, where he arrived at the end of September. During this second visit to London he enjoyed the society of the most eminent members of the Royal Society, and of other notable personages, among whom was David Garrick, for whose genius the German savant, himself a great humourist, entertained the most unbounded admiration. On his return to Göttingen in 1775, the dukes of Clarence, Cumberland, and Cambridge having been sent thither to prosecute their studies, Lichtenberg was appointed to act as their tutor. Two years later he succeeded Erxleben in the chair of physics, the duties of which he discharged till his death, which occurred at Göttingen, 14th February, 1799. It is a curious and interesting study to compare Lichtenberg of the eighteenth, with Pascal of the seventeenth, and George Wilsou of the nineteenth century. All three were great physicists, great wits, and in respect of character and aim—for all three were eminently religious—great men. All three, again, were nearly as remarkable for the malformation and weakness of their bodies, as for the vigour and elevation of their minds; and in many other points their lives and personal characteristics wonderfully resemble each other. Lichtenberg, like Pascal, became almost a recluse during the latter years of his life; but he kept himself in communication with most of the eminent men of his time, as well as with his relatives and pupils—his elder brother, a councillor at Gotha, perhaps enjoying the largest share of his correspondence. Unlike Wilson, who has described in one of his essays his sufferings from the loss of a foot, Lichtenberg rarely alluded to the defects of his physical organization. Among his MS. notes, however, we find the remarks, that a painter could best draw him in the dark, and that if his own opinion could have been asked, certain features of his body should have received less relief. Lichtenberg is perhaps best known as a physicist by his observations respecting the various figures produced by fine dust on the surface of electrified planes. As a litterateur, at least in England, he enjoys most fame from his volume of observations on the pictures of Hogarth. His philosophical and literary works were published in five volumes at Göttingen, 1800-3. Four volumes of his contributions to mathematics and natural philosophy followed in 1803-5. The latest edition of his writings is that which appeared at Göttingen in 1844-52 in 14 vols. The publication of this collection was superintended by his sons. Lichtenberg, when he was upwards of fifty, to the amazement of his friends, but also much to the advancement of his own happiness, married his servant, who bore him five children.—F. B—y.
LICHTWER, Magnus Gottfried, was born at Wurzen, Saxony, 30th of January, 1719. He studied law, then held an office under the Prussian government, and died at Halberstadt, 7th July, 1783. Besides his fables—which still enjoy a well-merited fame—he wrote a didactic poem on the right of reason, in which he showed himself a follower of Wolff.—K. E.
LICINIANUS GRANIUS, a Latin writer of whom very little is known. Macrobius mentions a work entitled "Fasti," of which it is supposed he is the author. In 1853 Pertz, keeper of the royal library at Berlin, discovered in the British museum among some Syriac MSS. brought in 1847 from the convent of St. Mary in the desert of Nitria, one which, under the Syriac, exhibited traces of an older character, and from which eventually there was recovered a portion of certain books of "Annales" by Licinianus. Of the Latin contents of this MS., happily relating to an interesting portion of Roman history, two editions have appeared, Berlin, 1857, and Bonn, 1858.—D. W. R.
LICINIO, Giovanni Antonio, Cavaliere, commonly called from his birthplace in the Friuli, il Pordenone, was born in 1483, and studied painting under Pelegrino da San Daniele, but was an imitator and rival of Giorgione and Titian, and was one of the most distinguished masters of the Venetian school, more especially as a fresco painter. He was also a good portrait painter, greatly excelling in the painting of flesh; but, like his rival Titian, he was very careless in the execution of his latest works. Some of Pordenone's works have been attributed to Titian; this is the case, according to Dr. Waagen, with the "Finding of Moses" at Burghley. His pictures are conspicuous for their strong contrasts of light and shade. There are works by him in the cathedral of Pordenone; and in San Pietro Martire, at Udine, is the Annunciation, which Vasari mentions as the painter's masterpiece. The Manfrini gallery at Venice contained several works by him, among them a portrait of himself with his sons, now Mr. Barker's in Piccadilly; and there is a similar picture by him in the collection at Hampton Court. There are fine frescoes by Pordenone at Treviso, Castel St. Salvatore, and Piacenza; his works are nevertheless scarce. The National gallery possesses a portion of an apostle by him. He signed his name Antonius Portunaensis and De Portunaonis; he is also sometimes called Cuticelli, after his mother, and De Regillo. He died at Ferrara in 1539. Bernardino Licinio, Giovanni Maria Calderari, and Pomponeo Amalteo, his son-in-law, were distinguished scholars of this painter.—(Vasari; Ridolfi; Zanetti; Maniago.)—R. N. W.
LICINIUS, Caius Licinius Calvus Stolo, a Roman of plebeian family, and one of the tribunes of the people for the year 375 b.c. In 366, in conjunction with his colleague L. Sextius Lateranus, he proposed and carried the measure by which the tribuneship was abolished and two annual consuls were substituted, one of whom should be always a plebian. In the following year Lateranus was chosen the first plebeian consul, but Licinius himself went out of office He was elected the plebeian consul, however, for 363 and 360. During his occupation of the tribuneship, Licinius and his colleague had brought forward a rogation which was adopted, restricting the citizens to five hundred jugera, or three hundred and thirty-three (circa) acres of land from the ager publicus apiece, on the ground that the possessors of a larger quantity were found unable to cultivate it properly, and to eradicate the stolones or unprofitable shoots; hence it is said that he derived his name of Stolo; but this may perhaps be allowed to rank among doubtful etymologies. It is a curious circumstance that in 356 b.c., Licinius fell under the operation of his own agrarian law, and was convicted of having double his allowance, namely, one thousand jugera. The date of his death is unknown.—W. C. H.
LICINIUS, Flavius Valerius, was originally a private soldier, was raised to the rank of Augustus by the Emperor Galerius in 307, and became governor of Rhætia and Pannonia. In 313 he improved his position by marrying the sister of Maxentius, and in that year he succeeded Maximin as emperor of the Eastern provinces. His good fortune seems to have forsaken him after his elevation to the purple. In 315 and again in 323 war broke out between him and the Western emperor, in which Licinius was the loser; and in 324 he was put to death by Constantine, whose prisoner he had become, on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the barbarians.—W. C. H.
LIDDEL, Duncan, a Scottish physician and mathematician, was born at Aberdeen in 1561, and died there on the
