called martyr by Stephen Gobarus. The Romish church commemorates him as a saint on the 22d February. He appears to have been a millennarian. A work entitled "Λογίων κυριακῶν ἐξηγήσις" in five books (Explanations of the Lord's discourses), proceeded from his pen; fragments of which have been published by Routh. It seems to have embodied traditions respecting Christ, the apostles, and their teachings, respecting which he was very inquisitive. It was a collection of anecdotes and stories, whose loss is greatly to be regretted; for though many must have been fabulous, criticism would have separated the wheat from the chaff. If, as Eusebius states, he related many particulars told by Aristion and John the presbyter, the work was valuable.—S. D.
PAPILLON, Jean, French wood-engraver, born at St. Quintin in 1661, was the son of a wood-engraver, Jean Papillon of Rouen, born in 1639; died in 1710. Jean Papillon the younger was the pupil, first of his father, and then of N. Cochin of Paris. He executed a large number of cuts, some of which have much merit; and to him is ascribed the invention, about 1688, of printing wall-papers, or "paper-hangings," being at first an imitation of tapestry. He died in 1723.—J. T—e.
PAPILLON, Jean-Baptiste-Michel, son of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1698. He learned wood engraving of his father, and attained considerable distinction in the art. His cuts are found in many of the illustrated works of the period; the best are considered to be those he engraved from the designs of Bachelier, for the folio edition of La Fontaine's Fables. Papillon, who was an enthusiastic admirer of wood engraving, published in 1776 a work on the art in two volumes, "Traité historique et pratique de la gravure sur bois," illustrated by a large number of excellent cuts. The work was long regarded as the chief authority on the subject, but as a history it has been superseded by later works, containing the results of much more extended research. It is, however, a work of much interest to the student. Jean Papillon died in 1776.—J. T—e.
PAPIN, Denis, a French physician and natural philosopher, and one of the inventors of the earlier improvements of the steam-engine, was born at Blois about the middle of the sixteenth century, and died at Marburg in 1710. He was bred to the medical profession, and employed his leisure in the study of physics and mechanics. In 1681. at the instance of Boyle, he went to London, and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1687 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Marburg; and in 1699, the distinction he had acquired caused him to be elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. He was the author of several papers on scientific subjects, which appeared in the Journal des Savans, the Philosophical Transactions, the Acta Eruditorum (of Leipsic), and other periodical publications; and of some separate treatises, one of which relates to the art of softening bones and extracting their gelatine by means of the apparatus since well known as "Papin's Digester," another to various machines, and a third to the raising of water by means of the pressure of steam. In connection with the steam-engine, Papin was unquestionably the inventor of the safety-valve and of the piston; and although his inventions never attained any practical success, they formed essential steps towards, and elements in, the inventions of his followers. According to Mr. Woodcroft, he appears to have tried experimentally a vessel which was either a small steam-boat or a working model of such a boat; the propelling power being in some way obtained through the action of steam in raising water by means of an engine like Savery's (see Fulton).—W. J. M. R.
PAPINIANUS, Æmilius, an illustrious Roman jurist born about 140, advocatus fisci under the reign of Marcus; and under Severus libellorum magister, and afterwards præfectus prætorio. It is probable that he accompanied the Emperor Severus to Britain, 208. After the death of his father, Caracalla dismissed Papinian, whose brother he murdered, and then the jurist himself. The latter was too honest, upright, and able, to be endured by such a tyrant. It is stated that he was beheaded in the emperor's presence; and that his son, who held the office of quæstor, lost his life about the same time, 212. The works of Papinian exist only in excerpts. They were—"Quæstiones," in thirty-seven books; "Responsa," in nineteen: "Definitiones," in two books; "De Adulteriis," in two books; "De Adulteriis," in one; and a Greek work supposed to have treated of the office of ædile. No less than five hundred and ninety-five excerpts from these exist in the Digest. Paulus, Ulpian, and Marcian cite and comment upon him; and his fame as a jurist was very high at Rome. Nor was the place which he occupied in public estimation undeserved; his knowledge, acuteness, ability, and integrity, made him a lawyer of the highest order.—S. D.
PAPIRIUS, Cursor L., a celebrated Roman general, was born about the beginning of the fourth century before Christ. In 340 he was magister equitum to L. Papirius Crassus; in 333 he became consul; in 325 he was commanded as dictator to carry on the war against the Samnites (the second Samnite war) in place of the consul, L. Camillus, with Q. Fabius as his magister equitum. During his absence at Rome, whither he returned to take the auguries again, Fabius gained a signal victory over the enemy, which enraged Papirius exceedingly, because he had left orders not to engage the Samnites in his absence. But he was hindered from punishing the violator of military discipline by the army, who threatened to mutiny. Fabius fled to Rome for protection, where he was defended by the senate and people. Papirius was defeated in his first encounter with the enemy, probably by means of his own soldiers, who, disliking his savage conduct; did not fight heartily till he promised them all the booty they might acquire. After this the Samnites were routed, and their territory plundered till they sued for a truce, which was granted them for a year, provided they clothed and paid the Roman army during that time. Returning to Rome, the dictator celebrated a triumph. In 320 b.c. he blockaded Luceria, and would have been lost with his army for want of supplies, had he not been relieved by Publilius Philo. Ultimately, however, he reduced the Samnites, and compelled them to leave Luceria. Returning to Rome, he celebrated a second triumph. But the war between the Romans and Samnites continued for many years after, with little intermission. In 309 b.c. Papirius was elected dictator, to conduct the Samnite war and save the army of C. Marcius in Apulia. He again routed the Samnites, returning with rich spoils to Rome, and celebrating a splendid triumph. His death took place soon after. Papirius Cursor was little else than a cruel and barbarous soldier, possessing immense strength and courage, so that the enemies of Rome had reason to dread him. As a general he was very successful, and had a very high reputation. The troops he led to victory, though wild and barbarous as their leader, did not like him, because of his cruelties to them.—S. D.
PAPIRIUS, Cursor L., a son of the preceding, was also a celebrated general. Having been chosen consul in 293 b.c., with Ap. Carvilius Maximus, he commanded the Romans in the third Samnite war, along with his colleague. His operations against the enemy at Aquilonia and elsewhere were very successful, so that he and his colleague returned to celebrate a magnificent triumph. He dedicated the temple of Quirinus, and adorned it with the first sun-dial which was publicly erected at Rome. Being again appointed consul with his former colleague, 272 b.c., he brought the Samnite war to a close; subduing the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians. The victors celebrated a second triumph. After this history takes no farther notice of him.—S. D.
PAPIRIUS, Justus, a Roman jurist, the author of "Constitutionum Libri xx.," a collection of rescripts of the Antonines, in whose time he lived. The Digest contains only sixteen fragments of them, reaching no farther than the eighth book.
PAPPENHEIM, Godfrey Henry, Count of, an imperialist general in the Thirty Years' war, was born in 1594, studied at Altorf and Tübingen, and commenced his career in the civil service of the state. Subsequently entering the army, he rapidly rose to distinction. In 1620 he was left for dead on the battlefield of Prague. In 1626 he crushed a formidable insurrection in Austria. At the taking of Magdeburg in 1631 he was the first to mount the breach, and after the battle of Leipsic in the same year, where he had commanded the right wing, he rallied the defeated Austrians and led them off in safety. He died from a wound received at the battle of Lutzen on the 7th November, 1632, rejoicing that the "great enemy of his religion," the illustrious Gustavus Adolphus, had died on the same field.—R. H.
PAPPUS, a Greek mathematician, flourished at Alexandria during the fourth century b.c. He did great service to posterity by collecting the investigations of the geometers of his time, in a work consisting originally of eight books, of which the last five, and fragments of the second and third, are still extant.
PARACELSUS, Philippus Auriolus Theophrastus
