critics as somewhat mythic; in the case of Phidias, however, we have a name as great as it possibly can be in art, not due to the praises of ancient writers, but owing to actual works, though but wrecks of their former beauty, which the ancient writers have distinguished by no remarkable notice. Modern prejudices, from reading the praises of the chryselephantine works of Phidias, without any remains to back them, would have led the purist critics to place him rather among the Doradores and Estofadores who made the Pasos or sacred images for the Spanish churches, than among the very highest of the world's sculptors, if not the first. The first to devote much labour to the study of the life of Phidias was K. O. Müller in his work De Phidiæ Vita et Operibus, &c., 4to, Göttingen, 1827.—R. N. W.
PHILARETUS, a Greek writer on medicine, to whom is attributed a treatise "De Pulsibus." In a MS. copy preserved in the Vienna library, however, the author is said to be Theophilus Protospatharius. By others it is assigned to Philotheus. The treatise is a mere epitome of Galen's observations on the pulse. A Latin translation by A. Torinus was published at Basle in 1533, and is contained in the Medicæ Artis Principes by H. Stephens, Paris, 1567.—F. C. W.
PHILE or PHILES, Manuel, a Byzantine poet of the fourteenth century, was a native of Ephesus. He was both a collector and composer of poetry. The most important of his works is entitled "De Animalium Proprietate," and he was the author of many other poems. His works were published at Leipsic in 1768.—D. M.
PHILEMON, an Athenian comic poet, was born about 360 b.c., and died 262 b.c., at the age of nearly one hundred years. Ninety-seven plays were ascribed by antiquity to Philemon, some of which, however, were probably written by his son, who bore the same name. His works belonged to the new comedy of Athens, of which he and Menander were regarded as the founders. Among his contemporaries he obtained even greater popularity than Menander, and continued in high estimation in subsequent times. His plays were extant in the time of Apuleius, by whom they are warmly extolled; but only a few fragments now remain. Two comedies of Plautus, the "Mercator" and "Trinummus," are borrowed from Philemon.—G.
PHILEMON, a grammarian of the seventh century, was the compiler of a "Lexicon Technologicum," of which the first book and part of the second are alone extant.—D. M.
PHILETAS, a Greek poet, grammarian, and critic, was a native of Cos. He flourished in the latter part of the third century. He was the author, according to Suidas, of epigrams, elegies, and other poems, but his elegiac poetry was most admired. Theocritus and the Latin poet Propertius speak of him in terms of the highest praise, as the model whom they strove to imitate. His grammatical works were also much esteemed. The death of Philetas may be placed about 290 b.c.—D. M.
PHILIP: the kings and princes so called are here noticed under the names of their respective countries, alphabetically arranged—viz., France (including Burgundy), Germany, Macedon, Spain:—
I.—KINGS OF FRANCE.
Philip I., the son of Henri I., and the fourth monarch of the Capetian dynasty, was born in the year 1053. His father died in 1060, and had intrusted the care of the youthful prince to his brother-in-law, Baldwin, count of Flanders. Seven years afterwards, Baldwin's own decease occurred; and the salutary restraint of his guardian being thus removed, Philip gave himself up to a life of the most licentious indulgence, which brought upon him the censures of the church, and the contempt of his subjects. The necessary funds for his profligate expenditure were supplied by the sale of ecclesiastical dignities, in which he trafficked openly, bartering to the highest bidder the vacant benefices and sees. Not long after the death of Baldwin, he engaged in war with Robert the Frisian, who had usurped the principality of Flanders. Meeting with indifferent success, he was obliged to conclude a peace with Robert, on which occasion he espoused Bertha of Holland, the latter's stepdaughter. For more than ten years, commencing in 1075, Philip was likewise involved in hostilities with William the Conqueror, which were only terminated by that monarch's death in 1087. It was, however, in the year 1092 that the chief incident of Philip's life occurred. Tired of his spouse Bertha, he shut her up in the castle of Montreuil, and married Bertrade, wife of the count of Anjou, who had left her husband and gone to reside with the French king. So shameful a breach of both law and morals justly covered Philip with odium, and stimulated the animosity of the church. He was successively excommunicated by two popes, at the councils of Autun and Clermont, but was eventually restored by the council of Paris, held in 1104. Bertha's divorce also implicated him in two wars, one with Robert the Frisian, and the other with Bertrade's husband, the count of Anjou. But before the close of his career, he associated with himself in the government his son Louis, known as Le Gros, who by his energetic conduct contributed to elevate the regal power from the degradation into which it had descended. Philip terminated his worthless life and dishonoured reign at Melun in 1108, at the age of fifty-five.—J. J.
Philip II., surnamed Augustus, it is said, from his being born in the month of August, was the son of Louis VII. by his t hird wife Alice, daughter of the count of Champagne. Born in 1165, he was only fifteen years old when he ascended the throne, at his father's death in 1180. But his precocious ability enabled him, even at that early age, befittingly to wield the sceptre; and the craft and ambition that formed the mainsprings of his character began from the first to display themselves. His chief object was the increase of the royal power, which in France had long degenerated to a shadow; and for the achievement of such an end he laboured unweariedly and successfully. That he strove to consolidate the monarchy and concentrate its influence by the subjection of the great fiefs and the effective control of his vassals, was, in the circumstances, a meritorious attempt; but no language is strong enough to stigmatize the atrocious persecution of the Jews that marked the commencement of his reign. In 1181 they were commanded to dispose of all their movable property and quit the kingdom for ever; all their real property was confiscated to the crown, and their synagogues were ordered to be converted into christian churches. Yet intolerance was the sin of the age, and Philip Augustus stood, in this respect, only on the same criminal level with his contemporaries. Philip's first wife was Isabella, niece of the count of Flanders. The latter personage, however, was soon alienated by the procedure of his royal relative, and combined with the other great vassals to curb, if possible, the growing influence of the crown; but in 1185 the arms of Philip proved victorious. A similar result attended his hostilities with the duke of Burgundy in 1186, and with Henry II. of England during the years immediately following. In 1191, having taken the cross, Philip accompanied Richard I. of England to the Holy Land. His stay there was of brief duration. The characters of the two sovereigns were dissimilar; and Philip's jealousy of Richard's superiority as a soldier appears to have prompted his return to France. Though he had sworn on the gospels not to undertake anything against the interests of the English monarch in his absence, he invaded Normandy and took several places; but being repulsed at Rouen, he concluded a truce for five years. In the interval having lost his wife, he married Ingeborg, sister of Canute VI., king of Denmark, whom nevertheless he soon divorced, and then espoused Agnes, daughter of the duke of Merania, a German noble. For this his kingdom was laid by the pope under an interdict, which was not removed until he consented to take back the Danish princess. The murder of Arthur of Brittany by his uncle John, king of England, gave Philip Augustus an opportunity of which he eagerly availed himself, to aggrandize the regal power. He summoned before him John, to answer for his crime, as a vassal of the crown of France; and on the refusal of the latter, he confiscated his fiefs, seizing Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Normandy. The English monarch retaliated by forming a grand league against Philip, along with the Emperor Otho IV., the counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and the disaffected French barons; and not fewer than two hundred thousand were combined against the former, while seventy thousand formed the whole that he could bring into the field. Notwithstanding this great disparity of forces, Philip came off the victor. In a battle fought at Bouvines between Lille and Tournay in 1214, he totally defeated his adversaries. The last years of' Philip's reign were spent in tranquillity, and devoted by him to effecting various public reforms and improvements. He died at Mantes in 1223, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. Romance writers have sometimes metamorphosed Philip Augustus into a chivalrous hero—falsely; for he was a stranger to knightly honour, and policy was the only god he worshipped.—J. J.
Philip III. surnamed le Hardi, or the Bold, was the
