postal system, however, existing before the Revolution), state, treasury and war; and in 1849 that of the interior was added, in 1870 justice, in 1889 agriculture, and in 1903 commerce and labor. (See United States Departments.) The heads of these are executive officers, called secretaries (except the attorney-general and the postmaster-general); are appointed by the president with the approval of the senate; and form his cabinet (q. v.) or body of advisers. The president also appoints ambassadors, judges of the federal courts and almost all of the higher executive officers. (See Diplomatic Service). In the civil service (q. v.) of the Union there are nearly 330,000 executives. The vice-president is president of the national senate, ex officio, and, if the president die or resign, becomes president. His salary is $12,000 a year. If the vice-president dies a temporary president of the senate discharges his duties and receives his salary.
Legislative authority over the Union is vested in a national congress (q. v.), consisting of a senate and a house of representatives. The first, nominally the ranking authority, represents the states; the second the people. Both bodies are now chosen by popular vote, a Constitutional amendment for direct election of senators being adopted in 1913. Each state has two senators, but has only so many representatives in the lower house as its population entitles it to. Nevada, e. g., has only about 50,000 inhabitants, New York over 8,000,000; yet Nevada as a state has two senators, but its people have only one representative in the house. As there is one representative to every 211,877 inhabitants, states of less population are given a representative. Representatives are elected for two years, senators for six, but a third of the senate goes out every two years. Territories send delegates to the house of representatives, Porto Rico a resident-commissioner. These are elected as representatives are; can speak in the house and make motions; but cannot vote. The salaries of senators, representatives, delegates and the Porto Rican commissioner are $7,500 a year (since March 4, 1907), with their expenses in travel, but the speaker receives $12,000. Alaska and the Philippines have an inofficial representation, but the District of Columbia has not even this. Congress governs the territories and districts and has power to enact legislation affecting the whole country, but it cannot change the laws of a state.
Judicial authority over the nation is vested in a supreme court, nine circuit-courts, a court of claims and 69 district-courts. (See Courts.) Each circuit also has a court of appeals. There also are federal courts for the districts and for the territories. The national courts try civil causes arising from the laws of the nation; causes between citizens of different states; and crimes against the whole United States. These crimes consist chiefly of murder on the high seas, offences against postal or revenue laws and piracy. The judges of these federal courts are appointed for life by the president with the approval of the senate. Each state forms a district or several districts. The chief-justice of the supreme court receives $10,500 a year, the eight associate-justices $10,000 each. (See, also, Congress and United States Departments: Justice.)
Each branch of the federal government is independent, within limits, of the others. To a degree they are coördinate. Yet all are so related together as to form a whole. The president or executive can veto a law of Congress and has such powers of a sovereign as appointing ambassadors and judges; but Congress, if two thirds of the senators and two thirds of the representatives sustain the vetoed law, can pass it; and the senate can refuse consent to his appointments. Only Congress can originate legislation; but the federal courts determine whether its laws are in keeping with the national constitution. Yet Congress has judicial functions, too, for the house alone has the power of impeachment and the senate then sits as a high court. The senate also has the executive function of ratifying or rejecting treaties that the president makes with foreign countries. It is such features as these that made Gladstone pronounce the federal constitution “the most wonderful work ever struck out at a given time by the hand and purpose of man.”
The states' governments mainly follow that of the nation. Each state must have a republican constitution, but this derives its powers from the citizens of the state. Admission of territories to the Union as states is effected by act of Congress and proclamation of the president. The state deals with all matters not reserved for the national government by the federal constitution nor falling within restrictions imposed by its own. It determines the qualifications for suffrage, and controls all elections. It also controls criminal and civil law, prisons, property and civil relations; marriage, divorce, education and charities; fisheries, game-laws, licensing and traffic. It charters and controls all corporations (q. v.) subject only to Congress's right to regulate interstate commerce; and it also regulates labor (q. v.). The state derives its revenue chiefly from a direct tax on property. (See Government in articles on states). Local government within a state is carried on by a borough or a municipality and by a county or a township. (See Citizenship, Factory Legislation, Municipal Government and Town-Meeting.)
Territorial governments are states' govern-
