- reduction, 116
- rejection of, 121, 138, 140, 164
deduction: Chapter 4
- formal, 74, 75
- scientific, 71, 74
- square of opposition, 80, 81
- substitution, 77, 79
- Venn diagrams, 76, 78, 81
- also see: classification, fallacy, syllogism
dependent variable, 46, 112, 139
- definition of, 117
deviation, 55, 56
discovery, 17, 46, 139, 157, 162, 169, 173, 178, 179
- also see: insight
E
economics, 55, 63, 96
education, scientific, 1, 186, 192
empiricism, see: experiment
equation, 6, 150
equipment, see: instruments
error, 17, 55, 179
- checking, 16
- definition of, 16
- experimental design and, 18, 29
- mistake, 16, 17, 20, 71, 72, 86, 88, 102, 138, 139, 144, 151
- random, 17-19, 22, 23, 28, 36, 56, 118, 122
- statistics and, 25-30, 32, 56
- systematic, see: bias
- value of, 16
ethics, 32, 93, 201, 205, 206
evidence, evaluation of: Chapter 7
evolution, biological, 14, 17, 60, 62, 99, 133, 149, 157, 163, 170, 172, 186, 187, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209
experiment, 12-14, 16-18, 20, 64, 83, 99, 117
- changes to, 37, 98, 100, 102, 105, 112-116, 118
- control group, 66, 118, 140
- control of variables, see: variable – control of
- definition of, 97
- diagnostic, see: confirmation and refutation – diagnostic experiment
- observation process, 131
- pilot, 102-104
- pitfalls, 98, 117, 137-141, 178
- planning, 16, 65, 72, 97, 98, 101, 113, 138
- replication, see: replication
- seizing an opportunity, 101
- troubleshooting, 104, 105, 109, 117
experimental design, 16, 18, 46, 64-66, 70, 79, 98, 100, 110-118, 121, 138-142, 148, 159, 160
- pitfalls, 137, 138
experimental science, see: science - experimental
experimental techniques: Chapter 5
explanation, scientific, see: causality, classification,
- comparison, concept, correlation
exploration, 9, 14, 105, 109
extrapolation, 18, 19, 51, 53-55, 60, 95, 96
F
facts, see: data
fallacy, 42, 44, 77, 82, 87, 91-96, 134, 156
falsifiability, see: confirmation and refutation falsifiability
fraud, 206
freedom, see: academic freedom
funding, see: science - funding
G
generalization, 4, 5, 13, 18, 20, 43, 45, 46, 73, 74, 87, 94-96, 127, 134, 136, 147, 156
genetics, 20
genius, see: intelligence
geography, 4, 96
geology, 99, 101, 144, 157, 177-179
goals of science, 2, 20, 43, 136, 143, 158, 175, 191, 207, 212
H
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 130
histogram, 22, 23
history of science, 3-12
history of scientific methods, 3-12
hypothesis
- confirmation, see: confirmation and refutation – of hypotheses
- creation of, 10, 12, 14, 42, 44, 46, 99, 143, 148, 156, 176, 177
- definition of, 13
- experiment and, 10, 13, 99
- method defined, 13, 14
- modification of, 17, 68, 159-162, 165
- null, 30, 43
- predictions of, 14, 151
- refutation of, 10, 14, 42, 64, 94, 156-160
- reinforcement, 128, 138, 164
- testing of, 12-14, 30, 46, 64, 66, 68, 71, 72, 74, 86, 89, 90, 100, 111, 123, 124, 138, 146-149, 151, 153, 156-160, 164, 165, 188, 200
