HOUSE-SPARROW. 2G4: HOUSING PROBLEM. portiiip nnd U'ttinf; loose in tliiit <ity omt 1000 pairs ill lS(i!). Tin- motive in most lases was to free tlic sliailt'-tiocs of ilcvastatiiin cat<'i|(illar8, which atiout that tinu' wcio cspriially numerous and aiinoyiii;; tliroujjliout tin- Kastcrn States. A few far-sei'int; persons protesteil, but were not listened to. Dnlv a few years elapsed, liowever, hefore u mass of eviilenee was presented tlint the sparrows were of no ])raetiejil service as inseet-' destroyers, and were an iiiereasin<r nnisanee and- menaw. The outeome of iiiiieh ilisenssion and writinfr was an exliaustive inipiiry. eondiieted by the I'nited States Dcpiirtment of Agriculture, the results of which, unfiivnraldc to tlu' bird, were published in ISSil in Hiillrlin o. I. of the Department, a document of 401) pa^es. Whether, as many believe, a balance will after a time be obtained, and these imported sparrows cease to lie relatively more numerous and troublesome than native birds of the same nature, remains to be seen. The fact that the people of fJreat Brit- ain make the same complaint as the L'nifed States against their prolificacy and destructive- ness discourajres this expectation. HlltLlocBAl'liY. Darrows, The Eiifili.ili .S'/xoroip III oilli Awciira. Kspccialli/ in Its Helaliim to Afiricullurc (Washington. 1K8!)): (Jentry. The House Sparrow at Home and Abroad (Philadel- phia. I87S) ; t'oues. The I'resent Staliis of Passer Diiiiiesticiis III America (Washington, IS70) ; Newton. Dictionan/ of fSirds (London and New York, 18!)U). HOUSE-SWALLOW, or Hoise-Martin. The Kngli>h iiaiiic of the familiar Kuropcan swallow (llirundo rustica). which makes its mud nest about houses and barns, more often than other- wise in the interstices of farndinus<' chim- neys, so that it is also calleil •(•hiiuncy swallow' (ij.v. ). It is widely distributed throughout the Old World, and everywhere a familiar of civiliza- tion. Sec SwAU.ow, and Plate of Swallows. HOUSE TAX. In England, as early as 1428, a tax was levied on houses; but the practice was soon drojiped and did not reappear until lOOG, when it was introduced in imitation of a similar tax then existing in Holland. In the latter year a fixed tax of two shillings was levied on all houses, with a higher rate for those which had more than a specified number of windows, on the theory that in this way occupants could be taxed in jiroportion to their means. With certain modi- fications as to rate, this tax continued to be Icvieil until 1778, when it was changed to a tax on inhabited houses, jiroportioned to the rental value, again in imitation of the Dutch juactice. The tax was repealed in 1.S34, but was renewed in 18ril, and is still in force. At present houses of less than £20 rental value are exempt; the tax is graduated up to £00. The theory of the tax on houses is that expenditure for house-rent is one of the best available tests of income. The tax is, however, unpopular and im|)roiluctive, and for these reasons does not find a place in the fiscal systems of other modern States. HOUSE THAT JACK BUILT, The. A iHn>iry rliyiiic in Molhrr dmyi . It relies for its interest on the accumulative manner in which it is told. Hallowell conjectures that its original was a Chaldean hymn or fable, in Sepher Uafi- ijaddh. which is strikingly like the rhyme of The Old Woman and the CrooLcil Sixpenee. HOUSING PROBLEM. The increase of crowded teiK'iiM'nls and unsanitary slum ilistriets which resulted from the rapid growth of {•ities in the latter half of the nineteenth ci'ntury aroused the pliilanlhropist and the pil)lic to the realiza- tion that they must solve the problem of housing the working classes and the poor. In view of the fact that much emphasis is placed upon the characteristic feature of American arehitectiiro — the middle-class home with its many comforts and conveniences — the housing problem as a (|ue8- tioii of environment for the imlividual is taking on larger proportions than a mere tencmentliouse reform. Comfortable housing involves questions of heat, light, sanitation, and coiivciiienccs, bel- ter facililii'S for wiiich the incre;ised production and the inventions of the nineteenth century arn continually pufling within reach of the masses. In small cities, in rural industrial centres, and especially in the expanding suburbs, the kind of liousing fa-.ili! ics provided are recognized as an important clement in the standard of living. Previous to the ninetw'nth century little at- tention wa.s paid to the homes of the common
- ico]ilc. .Ancient and mcdiaval history tells of
s;reat iKT.sonalitics, and we jiossess to-day tombs and temples, jialaccs and arches, churclies and caslli's, as relics of the past civilization; but the d.aily life of the people is not recorded, and has passed away with the rude hovels and noisome dens in which they herded. Southern nations easily adapted their dwellings to the climate, al- though extreme squalor frequently existed. Heal cimfort, however, was unknowTi to the northern nations until the great merchant princes intro- duced into Europe the conveniences f;imiliar to vouthern potentates. The means by which mod- ern life is made comfortabi? are the distinctive fi'atures of Western civilization, es|)ecially of the United States: but certain conditions have pre- vented the working classes from sharing these benefits. The workman nnist live near his work. The demand for property in the centre of cities for business purposes has iiicri-ased the value of the land, and also lessened the amount available for homes for the workers. As the demand for dwellings exceeded the supply, it became profit- able to subdivide and sublet old mansions, stores, or cottages built when the city was a country town. These buildings became entombed in blocks of buildings, with no provisions for venti- lation, sanitation, or conveniences, and often one hydrant supjdicd ii, whole house with water. As the demand increased, the rents rose and more people were crowded into a few rooms. Forty per cent, is said to have been an average return on such property, upon which no repairs were made. To reap this h.arvest. badly constructed buildings were erected, often by ex-tenants who recognized the opportunity to make money. All available sjiac'c was used. Back-to-baek cottages were put on the same lot. The worst type of tenement is the 'double-decker dumb-bell.' peculiar to New York. In English manufacturing towns, small cottages — rows upon rows in narrow alleys — were built on leased land. No unnecessary ex- penditures were made, as the houses were in- tended to fall when the lease expired. (Consult Engels. The Condition of the Workinr; Clafi» m Enfiland in If^'i'i) Damp cellars, dark halls, vermin, filth, lack of repair, no ventilation or adequate water-simply are characteristic of all slum dwellinjjs. Not only does a whole family
