ICELAND. 429 ICELAND. the sea. Its volume is probably more than 51 cubic uiiles, and it lias been formed bj- the eject- amenta of 20 volcanoes. There are about 100 volcanoes, of which 20 have been in erviption in modern times. The best-known volcanoes are Hccla, Katla, and Askja. The crater of Askja is 10 square miles in aaea, and is covered with glaciers which melt in times of eruption, caus- ing great inundations. There are many hot springs, and the geysers are famous for their in- termittent eruptions of scalding water. About 75 severe earthquakes have occurred in the past centur}-, many of which have done great damage to life and property. Several shocks in the closing years of the nineteenth centurj' were severely felt in Reykjavik, the capital and chief town. The climate is not very severe, considering the high latitude, as the island is open to the ameliorating influences of the Atlantic. In the highlands of the interior it is more severe and variable; here snow-storms often occur even in the middle of summer. The winter is long and damp, the summer short and cool. A journey can seldom be commenced before .July, for in spring the soil is saturated with snow-water, and the mountains and elevated plateaus covered with snow. Grass first apjiears on elevated spots in July, while in the highlands of the interior the scattered patches of verdure seldom yield fodder for horses before the end of August. The great- est hindrance to exploration is this scarcity of grass. The lowlands and the valleys have a great depth of rich soil, and on the field slopes grasses of several kinds mingle with the scrubby moun- tain birch and stunted willow, and afford luxu- riant herbage for the sheep. A few mountain ashes are the only trees worthy of the name, Elymus arenarius, a species of wild com, is grown along the sandy coasts ; and Iceland moss is a lucrative article of commerce. The fauna embraces, in seven families, 34 spe- cies of mammals, 24 of which live in the water. Seals breed around the coasts, several varieties of whales, basking sharks, and over 60 species of fishes abound in the adjacent waters, and wal- ruses are sometimes caught. White and blue foxes are numerous and are hunted for their fur. In 1770 reindeer were imported from Denmark, and are now found wild in the interior. Polar bears frequently arrive on ice-drifts from Green- land. The horse, the cow. the sheep, dog. and eat are the domestic animals. The dog resembles the Scotch collie and the Eskimo dog. Among indigenous birds are the falcon, ptarmigan, whist- ling swan, and several species of ducks. The ( ider-duck is especially valuable for its down, and is jealously protected. AGRICi:i.TrRE .ND OTHER INDUSTRIES. About five-sixths of the inhabitants live by horse, cattle, and sheep raising. A large part of the slopes and river valleys of the plateaus alTords excellent pasture for sheep, and in the low-lying lands are extensive meadows, which, properly managed, could support twice the number of cattle that now graze on them. The island contains about 1.000.000 shcop .nnd 20.000 cows. . great deal has been done latterly to improve the soil. Agri- cultural societies have been formed, and there are now four agricultural schools. At one time a little barley wa.s grown, but it could not be made to pay. and therefore field cultivation has been abandoned. Horticulture, on the other hand, makes great progress, potatoes, cabbages, and rhubarb thrive well, and some berries, such as currants, are cultivated. Woods have nevey ex- isted since the glacial ])eriod, and the brushwood of birch is less extensive than formerly, owing to the sheep. The birch is seldom higiier than a man, though in one place on tlie east side some specimens attain a height of over thirty feet. The mountain ash reaches the same height. The fishing grounds (cod, herring, flounders, whale, and seal) are frequented by English and Frencn boats. The sea is very stormy, and therefore fish- ing is best pursued in large and strong vessels. The fishermen of Iceland have had to content themselves with small open boats. They brave the billows of the ocean in winter with the great- est boldness and contempt of danger, and every year many lose their lives. Want of capit)»l has prevented them from acquiring large vessels, but considerable progress has been made in this di- rection, and the Icelanders now possess a fair fleet of fishing smacks. ^Manufacturing indus- tries, with the exception of fish oil. are utterly absent. The simpler articles of dress and neces- saries of life are usually supplied by every na- tive for himself, and the number of artisans is very small. The mineral deposits are not suffi- ciently large to repay exploitation. Turf is the chief fuel, but some coal is imported. The chief exports are dried fish. wool, live sheep and horses, eider-dovn, salted meat, oil, and whalebone. The annual value of the ex- ports amounts at present to over .$2,000,000. The imports consist of textiles, cereals, and other food- stuffs, and have an annual value of between .$2,- 000.000 and $2,500,000. Up to lSo4 the trade of Iceland was a State monopoly of Denmark. Since then it has been free, and is now chiefly in the hands of Denmark and Great Britain. Iceland has regular steam communication every three weeks with Denmark via Leith. the port of Edin- burgh. There are a number of trading stations on the island, and six commercial centres. There are few roads. In the settled districts the traveler follows bridle-paths worn by the hoofs of the small Iceland horses. But a few good roads have now been built, and some of the streams are being bridged. The ]x>ople are sturdy, and haAc not al- lowed the hardships they have endured to crush them. As the farthest outpost of civilization they have always had to fight a hard battle with na- ture. They are of an earnest, quiet, and somewhat melancholy disposition, and as a rule very intel- ligent. Though the lower classes live in poor circumstances, they are very enlightened : per- haps in no other countrv- of Europe are so many books, in proportion to the population, printed and sold as in Iceland. The island contains five printing establishments, from which issue ten newspapers and eight periodicals. During recent decades many Icelanders have emigrated to Amer- ica, and have founded flourishing colonies in Manitoba. In all about 12.000 have crossed the Atlantic, but of late years the emigration has fallen off. Besides Reykjavik, the capital, with a population of about 4000. the chief settlements are Akreyri and Tsafiord. GovERXMEXT. At the head of the administra- tion is a Governor-General, appointed by the King of Denmark, and exercising his authority under the supervision of the Secretary for Ice- land at Copenhagen. The .lthing. or the Parlia- ment of the colonv, although in existence sines
