PORTUGAL. 285 PORTUGAI,. is a final court of appeal for the whole kingdom. Trial by jury is allowed in criminal cases. For the purpose of local government, Portugal, with the neighboring isles, is divided into 21 dis- tricts, corresponding somewhat to the French de- partments. The districts are again divided into communes (concclhas) : and these are further sub- divided into parishes, about 4000 in number. In each district there are a popularly elected assem- bly or junta, a permanent executive commission chosen from the membership of the junta and charged with the execution of its deliberations, an administrative tribunal for the settlement of ad- ministrative controversies, and a Governor ap- pointed by the King and charged with the super- vision of matters of central administration in the district. The commune is an administrative cir- cumscription varying in population from 500 to 15.000 inhabitants. Its chief organs of govern- ment are an elected municipal council with a president, whose duty it is to execute the resolu- tions of the council, and an administrador, ap- pointed by the King and charged with the super- vision of central affairs in the commune. In each parish there is an elected assembly or junta, with a president who is charged with the execu- tion of its resolutions, which for the most part relate to ecclesiastical affairs and poor relief. History. What later became Portugal was inhabited in prehistoric times by a branch of the Celtiberian race, made up of the native Iberian stock of the peninsula and the immigrant Celts. Greek colonies were planted at the mouths of the three rivers, the Tagus. the Douro, and the ilinho — the name of Lisbon being derived from the an- cient Greek Olisipo. The Carthaginian influence was weaker in this part of the peninsula than in the eastern. The Roman conquest was begun in B.C. 189 and was gradually completed in the two generations following, though with much diffi- culty, Viriathus ( q.v. ) . the leader of the Lusitani in their revolt (c.153-140 B.C.), proving a formi- dable adversary-. The Roman province of Lusi- tania under the Empire contained most of the territory of modern Portugal south of the Douro. In the fifth century Roman control in the penin- sula gave w.ay to that of the Visigoths without especially affecting this remote corner. It was included in the area of ilohanmiedan conquest in the eighth century. In 997 the territory between the Douro and the Minho was taken from the Arab-Moors by Bermudez, King of Galicia, and in 1064 the reconquest was completed as far south asCoimbra by King Ferdinand the Great of Castile and Leon. The reconquered districts were organ- ized as counties, feudal appanages of Galicia. From the northern county, the Comilnius Porfu- calrnsis, extending about the Roman Portus Ciile (the modern Oporto) , the new nation finally took its name. In the division of Ferdinand's realm Galicia with Oporto and Coimbra went to his third son, Garcia, but the eldest son. Alfonso VI. of Leon, forcibly united all the family possessions in 1073. The new Mohammedan attack under the Almoravides (q.v.) put Alfonso on the defensive. Among those who came to his assistance was Count Henry of Burgundy, who married Theresa, an ille- gitimate daughter of Alfonso, and received Coim- bra and Oporto, with the title of Count of Portu- gal (10951. During the internecine wars before and after the death of Alfonso in 1109 the Portu- guese began to develop a national spirit and to distinguish themselves from the hitherto dominant Galicians. This was especially true after the death of Count Henrj- in 1112, when his wife devoted herself to upbuilding an independent kingdom for their infant son. The latter. Alfonso I., assumed the government in 1128 and fought valiantly against the iloors, over whom he won a splendid victory; at Ourique in 1139. This was followed b.v his as- sumption of the kingly title and long wars neces- sitated by the attempts of Castile to subdue his dominions. Alfonso took Lisbon from the Moors in 1147 and made it his capital. He died in 1185, after a long and brilliant reign. His son and successor, Sancho I. (1185-1211), gained from the gratitude of a prosperous country the title of ■the Founder.' Alfonso II. (1211-23) followed Sancho's wise policy, but came into conflict with. the Papacy, which culminated in the King's ex- communication and an interdict laid upon the kingdom. His son Sancho II. (1223-45) was also excommunicated, the country being put under au. interdict, and was finally deposed by Pope Inno- cent IV, He died in 1248. Flis brother, Alfonso III. (1248-79), was on better terms with the clergy and also proved to be a capable ruler. The countrj- had now reached its utmost European limits, and its course had been steadily progressive, except for the unfortunate years of struggle with the Church. The long reign of Denis or Diniz ( 12791325), the son of Alfonso III., was a period of progress and development hardly equaled at that time in Europe. L'nder him Portugal entered on that course of commercial enterprise which was the source of all the country's wealth and greatness. In 1290 he founded the University of Lisbon (transferred to Coimbra in 1308). 'His son Alfonso IV. (1325-57) was compelled to de- fend his kingdom against Castilian and Moslem. Alfonso's son Pedro (1357-07) was succeeded by his son Ferdinand (1367-83), the last male in the legitimate line. On the death of Peter his illegitimate son, .John I., took measures to secure the government and was recognized by the Cortes after some diflaculty in 1385. This branch of the Burgundian house is sometimes known as the House of Aviz, the King having been gi-and master of the Order of Aviz. John's reign of nearly half a century was one of the most noteworthy in Portuguese history. He success- fully defended his kingdom against Castilian at- tack and showed himself a statesman and general of uncommon ability. The fame of his reign rests, however, less upon the strong and intelligent ad- ministration of the King than upon the work done under the direction of his accomplished .son. Prince Henry the Xavigator (q.v), in exploring the African coast with the object of discovering an eastward route to the Indies. In 1419 the Portuguese rediscovered ^Madeira, and at the close of .John's reign they reached the Azores. A suc- cessful campaign by Portugal in ilorocco, result- ing in the capture of Ceuta in 1415, was followed by the acquisition of control over about half of Morocco, which was held until 1578. John I. was succeeded bv his eldest son, Duarte, or Edward (1433-38), and he by his son Alfonso V. (1438- 81). The work of Prince Henry's captains and their immediate successors led to the inaugura- tion of a regular system of exploration and the acquisition soon after the middle of the fifteenth century of the Cape Verde Islands and the Guinea Coast. Alfonso V. interfered in the Gas-
