STANDARD. 495 STANFIELD. cross-bar, on which seems to have been a plate vith the name of the company. From the ends of this bar bung ribbons tipped with silver oak- leaves. Below the bar along the pole are a number of metal disks, which seem to have been marks of distinction, and consequently vary with the legion and company. Above the bar is some- times a disk, or a hand, the emblem of hdclity, or the figure of an animal, though these latter seem to appear on the standards of native troops in the Roman service. Another standard bore the image of the Emperor. The standard of the legion was a golden eagle, with spread wings, and usually holding a thunderbolt in its claws. It was placed near the commander in battle, and in the camp had a special shrine, for, like all the standards, it was sacred. Another form of standard was the vexillum, a piece of fringed cloth, hanging from a cross-bar on a pole. This was a very old form, as it was the banner hoisted when the Comitia Centuriata was in session. It gave the signal for battle when raised over the general's tent, and was used by any division on detached duty. It was carried by the cavalry of the legion, and seems sometimes to have been attached to the signum. The color of the cloth was red or white. For modern standards and national emblems, see Flag, and Heraldet, sec- tion on National Coats of Arms. STANDARD, Battle of the. A name fre- quently given to the battle fought between the English and the Scotch, August 22, 1138, at Northallerton (q.v.). STANDARD OF LIVING. In economics, the term used to designate the degree of comfort or enjo}-ment derived from the use of material goods which each social class regards as es- sential to tolerable existence. Those have a "high standard of living' who demand control over a large and varied quantity of consumption goods ; those whose wants are few and tastes in- expensive have a "low standard of living.' The terms are usually used without moral connota- tions, injurious and degrading modes of con- sumption entering into a "high" standard of liv- ing, as well as consumption of goods which ex- ercise a refining influence. In some sociological studies, however, the test of a high standard of living is its moral influence. Students of the housing problem (q.v.) regard the development of a higher standard with respect to house room as an advance in the standard of life, although such a development may result in checking ex- penditure in other directions. In a developing society like that of the United States, the grada- tions of standards of living are as numerous as those of social classes. In a rough way it may be said that the professional and business classes have a higher standard of living than artisans; and the standard of the latter is higher than that of the laborer. Comparing societies as wholes, the American standard of living is higher than the European, which in turn is higher than the Asiatic. While preserving a certain fixity within relatively brief periods of time, tile standard of living of classes or of nations tends to rise or fall as a result of general eco- nomic conditions. Throughout the Western world standards of living have been rising for the past hundred years, although the standards of isolated classes have fallen. In recent discussion much emphasis has been laid upon the infiuence of the standard of living upon wages. If a social class has a high stand- ard, each individual in it will e.^ert himself to the utmost to maintain the same control over goods as his fellows. A rising standard thus acts as a spur to those whose individual wants would demand no great degree of exertion. To raise the stand- ard of backward races or classes is therefore re- garded as a prerequisite to industrial im|)rove- ment. In the second place, a high standard, as- suming that it consists in the consumption of goods which improve the physical and mental condition of the laborer — e.g. good food, clothing, housing, a thorough education and technical training for children — tends in the long run to in- crease industrial efticiency. Thus the native American workman, owing to his high standard of life, is capable of more effective work than underfed and ignorant immigrants. Thirdly, it is dilficult for an employer to beat down wages of laborers whose standard is high. Thus a greater share in the social dividend may be di- verted to labor. Fourthly, men whose standard is high refuse to marry until they have a fair prospect of bringing up their children in a way in keeping with class standards. Hence the sup- ply of labor is kept from exceeding the demand for it and wages are kept from falling to a sub- sistence level. See Wages; Political Economt. STANDARD TIME. See Time, Standard. STANDARD-WING. Either of two African nightjars of the genus JIaerodipteryx, in which the second primary wing-quill of tlie male is enor- mously elongated, so as to look like a pennant floating from the wing as the bird flies. In one species it has no vane except near the tip ; and when the bird sits upon the grotuul these feathers stand upright. See Plate of XlGHTrJARS, etc. One of the birds of paradise (Semioptera Wal- lacii) is also known by this name. STANDING STONES. See JIegalithic Monuments. STAND'ISH, iliLES or JIyles ( 15.S4-1656). An American colonist, born in Lancashire. Eng- land. He served in the English army in the Netherlands, and emigrated to America in 1620, being one of the passengers on the Manpower. He was active among the Plymouth colonists as an explorer and Indian fighter and became mili- tary leader of the colony. In the summer of 1025, the colony being in great straits. Standi.sh was sent to England to secure the intervention of the Government against the merchant adventur- ers, but was unsuccessful. He returned to the colony in the following year with supplies and became one of the proprietors and settlers of Duxbury. Mass., where he held the oflSce of magis- trate for the remainder of his life. A granite monument to his memory has been erected in Dux- bury. The second courtship of Standish has been made the subject of one of Longfellow's best known poems. The Courtship of .Viles fltandish. Consult Bradford, Plymouth Plantation (last ed., Boston. 180S| . STANDPIPE. See Water-Works. STAN'FIELD, Cl.4rkson (1793-1867). An English marine and landscape painter. He was born of Irish parents in Sunderland. Dur- ham, and was a sailor and a scene-painter. In 1S35 he became a member of the Royal
