SHAKESPEARE. 48 SHALER. Manual (Bohn's ed.) ; Franz Thimm, Shake- spcareana (1864 and 1871), the Eiicyflupwdia liriluntiica (9th ed.), and the British Museum Catalogue, the Shakespeareaiia of whieh were pub- lished separately in 1897. The Catalogue of the Barton Collection (Boston Puhlic Library) is also valuable for reference. Consult: Dowden, Hhukspere: His Mind and Art (1875); Corson, Introduction to theiitudy of Shakespeare (1889) ; Hudson, Life. Art. and Characters of Shakcsi>eare (1872) ; Haliiwell-Phillipps, Life of Shakespeare (7th ed. 1887) ; l^ee, Life of William Shakespeare (1898) ; and the biugraphical and critical intro- duction, by Innnivall, in the Leopold edition, and the commentary in Furness's New Variorum edition. SHAKESPEARE SOCIETIES. Down to about the middle of the nineteenth century the criticism of Shakespeare had been mainly festhetic and philosophical. For the purpose of illustrating Shakespeare and the literature of his time. J. 0. Halliwell (afterwards Haliiwell-Phil- lipps) (q.v.), John Payne Collier (q.v.), and their friends founded in 1841 the first Shake- speare Society. Before its dissolution in 1853, it published forty-eight volumes. In spite of much careless editing, these publications are of very great value. In 1874 F. .J. Furnivall (q.v.), aided by a group of English scholars, set on foot the New Shakespeare Society, whose first publi- cations on verse-tests were epocli-uiaking in the history of Shakespearean scholarship. On the celebration of the three hiindredth anniversary of Shakespeare's birth at Weimar (April 23, 1864) the German Shakespeare Society (the Deutsche Shakespeare-Gesellschaft) was established. Since 1865 it has issued a year book (Jahrbueh) , rep- resentative of the best GJerman criticism. In 1885 the Shakespeare Society of New York was organized, with J. Appleton Jlorgan as its first president. Besides publishing its transactions, it has issvied, under Mr. Morgan's supervision, the Bankside Shakespeare (20 vols.. 1888-92). The text of the quartos is printed by the side of the text of the first folio (1623). SHALE (Ger. Schalc, OHG. seala, AS. scealu, shell, husk, scale; connected with OChurch Slav. skolika, mussel, Lith. skclti. to split). An in- durated clay consolidated chiefly by the pressure of overlying sediments. It often forms heavy beds in many geological formations. In the Carboniferous formation shale bc<ls of slaty ap- pearance are frequently associated with the coal and are erroneously termed slate by the miners. Shale varies considerably in composition and color, and this variation exerts an important in- fluence on its uses. When ground and mixed with water many shales become as plastic as ordinary surface clays. Some approach kaolinite in composition, and are very refractory, being used in the maniifacture of fire-brick. Others contain an abundance of impurities such as iron oxide and lime carbonate. The former are most- ly employed in the manufacture of common brick, luiless the percentage of iron oxide is high, when they lend themselves more readily to the manu- facture of mineral paint. Calcareous shales are often valuable as an ingredient of Portland ce- ment. The gray or black color of shale is usually caused by the presence of carbonaceous matter, and there may be a notable quantity of bitumen. When there is sufficient bitumen present so that the mineral crackles and blazes in the fire, emit- ting a black smoke and bituminous odor, it is known as bituminous shale. This variety some- times passes into coal. When shale is metamor- phosed it changes to slate, or by more intense metamorphism into schist. The slate splits along its cleavage planes, and not along the planes of stratification as in the case of the shale. By an increase in sandiness shale may pass into sand- stone, or (by an increase of lime carbonate) into limestone. The value of certain decomposed shales, through which iron sulphide is disseminated for the manufacture of alum, has been long recog- nized. Such shales are known as alum shales. Shales of this kind are worked in Great Britain, France, and Germany. BituminoTis shales have, in recent years, at- tracted nnich notice as sources of oil for il- luminating purposes. Such shales, which com- monly occur in beds of Carboniferous age, have been found upon trial to yield from 30 to 50 gallons of crude oil ]ipr ton. A large industry based upon the distillation of shales has been established in Scotland. See Petroleum; Clay. SHALE OIL. A mineral oil obtained from carbonaceous sliale. The oil is similar in general character to jjctroleum and is produced by the simple process of distilling in retorts shale that is rich in bituminous matter, whereby the vol- atile liydrocarbons that pass off are recovered by condensation. The crude oil by refining is made to yield naphtha, paraflin. and an illu- minating product or kerosene, all of which are identical with the products obtained from the refining of American or Russian petroleum. In the distillation process a considerable quantity of ammonia water is condensed, forming a val- uable by-product. The shale-oil industry is limited to certain districts of Scotland, more especially Linlithgowshire and Edinburghshire, where large supplies of oil shale are found in the Carboniferous rocks. One ton of shale yields about forty gallons of oil di.stillate. It is only by ])racticing the utmost economy that the in- dustry has been aide to survive the competition of American petroliMun. The present out]mt of the .Scottish industry is about 500.000 barrels of petroleum and 400,000 barrels of naphtha and heavy oils. SHA'LEE, Nathaniel Southgate (1841 — ). An American geologist, born in Newport, Ky. He graduated in 1862 at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, and afterwards served for two years in the Federal Army as cap- tain of a Kentucky volunteer battery.* In 1864 he was appointed an assistant in paleontolog;- at Harvard, and in the following year became an instructor in geolog;v in the Lawrence Scientific School. He was professor of paleontology in Harvard University from 1868 until 1887, when he bec.Tme professor of geoIog; In 1891 he became dean of the Lawrence Scientific School. From 1873 to 1880 he was director of the Kentucky Geological Survey, and in 1884 became geologist for the Atlantic Coast division of the New York Geological Survey. In addition to numerous memoirs and magazine articles, and official re- ports, he published: Thoughts on the ature of Intellectual Propertu and Its Importance to the State (1878) ; Illustrations of the Earth's Sur- face: Glaciers (1881), with Prof. W. M. Davis;
