SWITZERLAND. 764 SWITZERLAND. broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and a small body of Zuriehers was defeated at Kappel. Zwingli, who was with them as their chaplain, was slain. In 1530 Bern wrested the Pays de Vaud from the dukes of Savoy and annexed it to its own territory. In the same year Calvin settled at Geneva, which had succeeded in emancipating itself completely from the jurisdiction of Savoy and of its bishop, and the reformed doctrines spread throughout ^Ycstern Switzerland. During the Thirty Years' War Bern, which had become, since the concjuest of Vaud, the leading canton, and Zurich, con- trived to maintain the neutrality of Switzerland; and in the Peace of Westphalia, in 1G48, the country was formally declared to be wholly inde- pendent of the German Empire. The complex fabric of the Swiss Confederation, with the division into two hostile religious camps, the relation between governing cantons and subjected districts, the selfish assertion of local and class interests, and the absence of any firm bond of union, was not conducive to a healthy political development. The constitution of the larger cantons became more and more aristocratic. In Zurich, Schaffhausen, and Basel the governing councils were elected by the cor- porations; and in Bern, Fribourg, Solothurn, and Lucerne a few families had acquired permanent rule. The French Revolution had its effect in Switzerland as elsewhere. In 1708 the country •was occupied by the French, who were aided by the dissensions between the democrats and aris- tocrats. The old cantonal system was abolished and the Helvetic Republic was organized. In 1803, at the dictation of Xapoleon and under the Act of Mediation, the cantonal system was re- established, with nineteen cantons, six new ones being constituted — Saint Gall, Grisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino, and Vaud. After this Switzer- land enjoyed peace under an orderly government and began to recover prosperity. The Congress of A'ienna (1814-15) recognized the independence of Switzerland and her perpetual neutrality and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed by the great Powers. The new Confederation was divided into twenty-two cantons (three new can- tons, Geneva, Valais, and Xeuchatel, being con- stituted), each of which was represented in a diet, which was appointed to hold its annual meetings alternately at Bern, Zurich, and Lu- cerne. The old abuses, however, which had crept into the constitutions of the cantons were re- vived, and representation in most of them became based on property qualifications. Officials, the aristocracy, and the clergy- joined to oppose inno- vations, and succeeded in doing so until the Revo- lution of 1830 in France. From that year until 1848 Switzerland passed through a long crisis. There was strife between the democratic and aristocratic elements, and then between the Catholics, who in some of the cantons retained ancient special privileges, and the Protestants, who formed a majority of the Swiss people. In Aargau a struggle took place between the Liberals and the I'ltramontane Party, which was settled by an unsatisfactory compromise. In Valais, where universal suffrage had put power into the hands of the reactionary party, a war took place, in which this party was victorious. It then ruled ■with a strong hand, and forbade Protestant wor- ship within the canton. In Lucerne the Ultra- montane Party so persecuted its political oppo- nents that the latter were compelled to leave the canton. In 1844 a proposal was made in the Diet to expel the Jesuits, the chief object of Prot- estant attack; but that body declined to act. The Radical Party then determined to resort to force; they organized bodies of armed men. called "free corps," which invaded the Catholic cantons, but were defeated. The Catholic cantons then formed a league, named the Son- derbund, for defense against the free corps. There was a general clamor for its suppression, but in the Diet only lO'-; votes out of 22 were in favor of that measure. The ruling party in Geneva had been with the majority, and this conduct led to a revolution in that city. One vote was thus gained against the Sonderbund. Saint Gall added another: and a majority in the Diet in 1847 declared the illegality of the Son- derbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits. The Federal forces under General Dutour de- feated those of the Sondorl)und ; the leagued can- tons were made liable for all the expenses of the war, the Jesuits were expelled, and the mon- asteries were suppressed. An attempt was made by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss Government, but the revolutions of 1848 pre- vented further interference. This same period of civil strife was also one of intellectual and material development. The results of these stormy but profitable years were seen in part in the Constitution of 1848, which boimd the Con- federation more firmly together and gave it at last an efficient government. This Constitution subsisted imtil 1874, when the believers in a stronger federal aovernment won a step in that direction. The Constitution of 1874 has been since amended in some of its details. In 1891 the six hundredth anniversary of the "Perpetual League' was celebrated by the Swiss with great enthusiasm. The history of Switzerland for the past quarter of a century has been very unevent- ful, though marked by a steady material, intellec- tual, and political growth. Bibliography. Gexer.l: Descripti"e. Re- clus, youvelle geographic iiniierselle, vol. iii. (Paris, 1878); Gourdault, La iiiilsse etudes et voyages a trovers les 22 cantons (ib., 1879) ; Robida. Les vieilles tiUcs de la Suisse (ib.. 1879) ; Sowerby, The Forest Cantons of Suitzerland (London. 1802) ; Stephen. The Playground of Evroi-ie (ib., 1894) ; Dixon. The Switzers (Lon- don, 1872) : Osenbriiggen. Die Schirei~er daheim und in dcr Freinde (Berlin, 1874) : Story. Su-iss Life in Town and Country (London, 1902). Flora; Fauna. iMorthier, Flore analytique de !a Suisse (Xeuchatel, 1879) ; Schroter, Die Flora der Eiszeit (Zurich. 1882) ; Heer, Die Vrwclt der Schiceiz (ib., 1883) ; F. von Tschudi, Ticrleben- dcr Alpcnu:clf (11th ed., Leipzig, 1890) ; Schinz and Keller, Flora der Schweiz (Zurich, 1900). Geology. Studer, Geologic der Sehweiz (Bern. 1851-53) ; Schmidt. Zur Geologic dcr Schwcizcralpcn (Basel. 1889) ; Lubbock, The Scenery of Su-itzerland (London, 1890) ; and the auHiorities referred to tuuler Alp.s. Economics. Farrer. Volksw-irtschaftslcxikon der Schn-ciz (Bern. 1885-92) ; Jay, Etudes sur la question ouvriere en Suisse (Paris, 1893) ; Daw- son, Social Src^tzerland (London, 1897); Geer- ing. Wirtsehaftskvnde der Schiceis (Zurich, 1902) ; and with special reference to industries
