The New International Encyclopædia/Alps

ALPS. The word Alp is of Celtic origin, and signifies, according to some authorities, “white,” and according to others, “high.” Thus the Alps may be simply the White Mountains, or the High Mountains. The name is applied to a mountain system of Southern Europe, which includes most of Switzerland, and extends into France on the west, Austria on the east, Italy on the south, and Germany on the north, and covers altogether an area of some 80,000 to 90,000 square miles (Map: Europe, D 4).

The system rises from the shore of the Mediterranean west of the Gulf of Genoa, and at first trends northward to the west of the plain of Lombardy; then swinging to the east, it stretches with an east and west trend through Switzerland and across the north of Italy into Austria. The total length of the system is upward of 600 miles, and its breadth ranges from about 75 to about 150 miles. It contains hundreds of peaks exceeding 10,000 feet, and its crowning summit, Mont Blanc, has an altitude of 15,781 feet. In the extreme northeast, where the Alpine system reaches the Danube, it is met by a range belonging to the great system of the Carpathian and Sudetic Mountains. On the west the Alps are connected with the Jura Mountains. In the south the Apennines form a great continuation, extending as far south as Sicily. The Cévennes in southeastern France constitute in a measure a connecting link with the Pyrenees. The range of mountains known as the Dinaric Alps, on the borders of Dalmatia and Bosnia, are a connecting link between the Alpine system and the Balkan Mountains. The slopes upon the south, to the plains of Lombardy, are much more abrupt than those on the north to the lower lands of Switzerland and Austria. This broad, complex mountain region is the source of many of the great rivers of Europe. The western slope of that part of the range which trends north from the Mediterranean shore is drained into that sea by the Rhone, while the east slope of this part, together with the southern slope throughout Italy, is drained into the Adriatic mainly by the River Po. The north slope is drained into the North Sea by the Rhine, and into the Black Sea by the Danube, which flows around the eastern end of the mountain system. The head branches of these rivers, aided by the glaciers at their sources, have eroded this mountain mass into a complex of short ranges and ridges, many of which have received distinctive names.

Subdivisions. The Alps are commonly, but rather arbitrarily, divided into three portions. The Western Alps comprise that portion having a north and south trend, and extending northward to the Great St. Bernard Pass; the Central Alps extend thence eastward to the Brenner Pass, while the Eastern Alps include the remainder. In the Western Alps the ranges and ridges are broken and irregular, while in the other parts of the system the secondary ranges trend more commonly parallel to the axis of the system. The system is still further subdivided into groups or ranges separated from one another more or less completely by stream gorges. The following groups are comprised in the Western Alps: The Maritime Alps, near the Mediterranean coast; the Cottian Alps, stretching from Mont Chamebyron, 11,155 feet, to the Col de Fréjus. It contains several peaks exceeding 12,000 feet in height. West of it is the small group known as Oisans, with Mont Pelvoux, 12,970 feet, and Les Écrins, 13,462 feet, the highest peak of Dauphiné. The Graian Alps are the northernmost group of the Western Alps; here are Grand Paradis, 13,324 feet; Mont Pourri, 12,428 feet; La Grivola, 13,028 feet; the Grands Coulvirs, 12,567 feet; the Grande Sassière, 12,430 feet; and, at the turning point of the range, Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet.

The Central Alps are subdivided into many groups, of which only the principal ones can be mentioned. The Bernese Alps separate the upper valley of the Rhone from the Aar, and comprise many well known peaks, among them the Jungfrau, 13,672 feet; Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 feet; Aletschhorn, 13,720 feet; Mönch, 13,465 feet; Eiger, 13,040 feet; Schreckorn, 13,385 feet, and Wetterhorn, 12,150 feet. This is one of the most rugged groups of the system, containing many peaks exceeding 12,000 feet in height, and having many glaciers, one of which, the Aletsch, is the longest in the Alps. On the opposite side of the Rhone valley is another splendid range, the Pennine Alps, in which, grouped about Zermatt, are the Matterhorn or Mont Cervin, 14,780 (14,705) feet; Weisshorn, 14,803 feet; Grand Combin, 14,164 feet; Lyskamm, 14,889 feet; Mischabel, 14,941 feet; and Monte Rosa, 15,217 feet. The St. Gothard range stands at the sources of the Reuss, Rhine, and Ticino, separated on all sides by comparatively low passes. To the south and east of it, and to the northeast of the Pennine Alps, are the Lepontine Alps, through which from northwest to southeast extends the valley of the Ticino. Between the Aar and Reuss are the Emmenthal Alps, separated from the Alps of Uri on the east by the Brünig Pass. The Tödi chain continues the line of Bernese Alps northeastward, with Tödi, 11,887 feet. The Rhætian Alps stand about the head-waters of the Inn River, and contain many fine peaks, exceeding 11,000 feet in height, while south of them is the splendid Bernina group, with Mont Bernina, 13,294 feet. Still further south, on the south flank of the system and east of Lake Como, are the Alps of Bergamo. East of the Rhætian Alps are the Otzthal and Ortler Alps, with peaks rising above 12,000 feet, the Ortlerspitze being 12,800 feet.

The Eastern Alps are of less height than the other two groups, and are broken into a great number of semi-detached groups and ranges; the North and South Tyrolese, Sarnthal, Dolomite, Venetian, Carnic, and Julian Alps, Hohe Tauern, Niedere Tauern, and the Salzburg, Styrian, and Austrian Limestone Alps. The Eastern Alps culminate in the Gross-Glockner, in the Hohe Tauern, on the borders of Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salzburg, which rises to a height of 12,457 feet, and from which descend glaciers almost rivaling those of the Swiss Alps.

The highest part of the Alpine system, as expressed by the altitude of its summits, is in the western part of the Central Alps, in the Bernese and Pennine groups, and about Mont Blanc. From this region the altitudes diminish eastward and southward. Owing to the broken character of the system, passes are numerous; many of them are comparatively low, and are utilized as routes for roads and railroads. Some of them have been used as routes of travel for many centuries.

Passes and Routes. The passage of the Western Alps is made by five principal roads: (1) The military road. La Corniche, a coast road at the foot of the Alps from Nice to Genoa, parallel to which a railway now runs. (2) The road over the Col-di-Tenda, between Nice and Cuneo, made in 1778; highest point, 6150 feet. (3) The high road over Mont Genèvre, connecting Provence and Dauphiné with Turin; highest point, 6100 feet. (4) The carriage road made by Napoleon in 1805, over Mont Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont; highest point, 6850 feet. Near this the chain is pierced by the railway tunnel of Mont Cenis. (5) The pass of the Little St. Bernard, connecting Savoy and Piedmont; highest point 7180 feet. The passage of the Central Alps is made by eight principal roads: (1) That of the Great St. Bernard, connecting the valley of the Rhone with Piedmont; highest point, 8120 feet. It was crossed by Napoleon in 1800. (2) The magnificent road over the Simplon, which mountain is pierced by the Simplon railway tunnel at a level below that of the St. Gothard tunnel, was constructed by Napoleon, 1801–06, and connects Valais with the confines of Piedmont and Lombardy; highest point, 8590 feet. (3) The pass of St. Gothard, connecting Lucerne with Lago Maggiore; highest point, 6936 feet. One of the great Alpine railway tunnels is the St. Gothard. (See St. Gothard.) (4) The San Bernardino Pass: highest point, 6770 feet. (5) The Splügen Pass, connecting the sources of the Rhine with the Adda, highest point, 6945 feet. This pass was the one used by the Romans in their intercourse with the countries bordering on the Danube and the Rhine, and also by the German armies on their marches into Italy in the Middle Ages. (6) The Furka Pass, separating the heads of the Rhine and Rhone, and crossed by a wagon road at an altitude of 7992 feet. (7) The Stelvio Pass (Stilfser Joch), on the frontiers of Tyrol and Lombardy, traversed by the most elevated carriage road in Europe; its highest point, 9855 feet. (8) The Brenner Pass known to the Romans, on the road from Innsbruck to Trent and Verona, highest point 4409 feet. It is now crossed by a railway. Besides these great roads, leading south into Italy, there are two which lead north from the valley of the Rhone, and cross the Bernese Alps, over the Grimsel Pass, 7103 feet high, and the Gemmi Pass, 7640 feet high. The roads over the Eastern Alps are much lower and also much more numerous than those in the Middle or Western Alps. The principal are: (1) The road from Venice to Salzburg, crossing the Noric Alps at an elevation of rather more than 5000 feet. (2) The road over the Carnic Alps, which divides into three branches—the first leading to Laibach, the second to the valley of the Isonzo, and the third to the valley of the Tagliamento. (3) The roads from the Danube at Linz to Laibach.

There are four railways crossing the Western and Central Alps: The Mont Cenis, connecting France with Italy; the St. Gothard, connecting Lake Lucerne with Lago Maggiore; the Simplon, from the upper Rhone Valley to Lago Maggiore, and the Brenner, from Munich and Innsbruck to Verona and Venice. The Arlberg railway, which pierces the Alps in the Arlberg Tunnel, is the great highway between Switzerland and Austria. Besides these through lines, there are many extending into the heart of the mountains. From the upper valley of the Aar many lines extend southward into the Bernese, Urner, and Glarner Alps to Interlaken, Lauterbrunnen, and Grindelwald, and to Brienz, Meiringen, Lucerne, and Linthal. A railway passes up the Rhone Valley, with a branch to Zermatt, in the Pennine Alps. On the Italian side several railways penetrate the mountains to considerable distances. The Eastern Alps are crossed by several railway lines, which subdivide and join, sending off many branches within the mountain area. Many of the points affording the grandest views in the Alps are now reached by mountain railways; the Gornegrat Railway, the highest railway in Europe, in the vicinity of the Matterhorn, climbing up to an elevation of 9908 feet. The most extensive panorama to be had from any easily accessible point is that obtained from the summit of the Rigi, a peak near Lucerne, less than 6000 feet high. As a pleasure ground for the lovers of grand scenery and adventurous mountain climbers, the Alps are the most attractive region on the earth. It is a truism that the most valuable of Switzerland’s assets is the scenery of the Alps. Not that these are the finest mountains on the face of the globe, but there are no others comparable with them which are so accessible, and in which living and travel are so pleasant and easy. Railways and carriage roads traverse these mountains in all directions. At the best scenic points are excellent hotels, and guides are provided for conducting visitors to all points. Hence every year tens of thousands of travelers visit the Alps from all parts of the civilized world.

Glaciers. As the Alps rise to heights of 12,000 to nearly 16,000 feet above the sea, in a region of ample rainfall, the precipitation on these mountains is great, and gives rise to extensive glaciers, which originate near the summits and descend to different levels, the longest reaching within four or five thousand feet of sea level, and one of them, the Lower Grindelwald, having its termination at an elevation of only 3550 feet. The principal glaciers are found in the Bernese and Pennine Alps, and the group about Mont Blanc, although numerous smaller ones exist in many other parts of the system. The total number is estimated at 1200, of which 471 are in Switzerland and 462 in Austria, those in the former country being by far the largest, covering an area of 710 square miles; the total area of snow and ice in the Alps is about 1600 square miles. The largest and longest of the Swiss glaciers is the Aletsch, in the Bernese Alps, with a length of 16 miles (area, 50 square miles), and a breadth of ice of more than a mile. In length the Unteraar is next, with a length of 10.4 miles, followed by the Gorner in the Pennine Alps and the Viesch in the Bernese Alps, each of which is 9.4 miles in length. Other well-known glaciers are the Mer de Glace, above the Valley of Chamonix, Miage Glacier, which has its source on Mont Blanc, the Oberaar and the Unteraar, in the Bernese Alps, and the Rhone Glacier in the same group, near the Furka Pass.

Our present knowledge of glaciers, their origin, structure, flow, advance, recession, and the phenomena of erosion, has been mainly derived from a study of these Alpine glaciers. The present glacial system is but the last dying remnant of great ice sheets which once covered both flanks of the mountain system, descending to the plains and valleys on either side. As it shrank, it developed great rivers of ice, which carved mountain gorges and lake basins. The lake scenery of the Alps is unrivaled for beauty, grandeur, and diversity. The largest lakes include Geneva, draining into the River Rhone, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Thun, Brienz, Lucerne, Zug, Zürich, Constance, Como, Lugano, Garda, and Maggiore. In the high mountains are cirques at the heads of all gorges not now occupied by ice, with little lakelets surrounded by frowning semi-circular sweeps of cliffs, hanging valleys, and smooth-sided, U-shaped gorges, planed and polished, all bearing mute evidence of their glacial origin. Since the recession of the glaciers, the rivers in their turn have done a vast deal of erosion, but have not yet by any means effaced from the land the hand-writing of the ice. The main Alpine region is drained on the north by the upper system of the Rhine, including the Reuss, Aar, and Thur, and by south branches of the Danube, including the Iller, Lech, Isar, Inn, and Enns; on the east by west branches of the middle Danube, including the Drave and Save; on the south by the upper Adriatic coast streams, including the Tagliamento, Piave, Brenta, and Adige, and by the northern branches of the Po, including the Mincio, Oglio, Adda, Ticino, Sesia, and Dora Baltia; and on the west by the eastern tributaries of the lower Rhone, the Durance, Isère, and the upper Rhone itself.

Geology. The Alps are the result of intense folding and faulting of the strata, carried on for a long time, the folds and faults mainly trending northeast and southwest, accompanied and followed by long continued and intense erosion by ice and water. The net result of the earth movements was greatly to elevate the surface in a broad anticline, composed of many sharp anticlines, synclines, and monoclines. Erosion has planed these off to a comparatively smooth curve, has removed the stratified beds in great part from the higher portions of the system, leaving only fragments of the older beds in limited localities, and has laid bare vast areas of the underlying gneissic rocks. Hence the higher parts of the system are composed almost entirely of gneissic and allied rocks, while upon the flanks are found stratified beds, lying in various positions with regard to the system, here lying up against it, there dipping away from it. The folding and faulting occurred in various geologic epochs, from Paleozoic times down, but was apparently most intense in relatively recent times, in the Mesozoic. They occurred at different times in different parts of the system, and not always or everywhere in the same direction, so that the result, in detail, is exceedingly complicated. The principal field of these movements, where the folding and faulting is most complicated and greatest, is north of the higher parts of the range, in other words, on the northern slope; here are found stratified beds succeeding each other in bewildering fashion. The southern or Italian slope is much simpler in structure.

Climate. The Alpine region is at the meeting place of the high middle-latitude marine climate of Western Europe, the continental climate of Central Europe, and the low-latitude marine climate of the Mediterranean regions. While it does not lie directly in the main path of the cyclonic disturbances which sweep across Northern Europe from west to east, yet it does lie within the sphere of influence of these storm centres. Moreover, during the spring, numerous extended cyclones pass over the Alpine region; but they are less frequent in the winter and fall, and are almost totally lacking in the summer. This is the chief reason for the steady cold of the Alpine winter, with but few intensely cold waves, the serenity of its summer climate, and the harshness of its spring weather. The average annual temperature on the northern Alpine boundary at altitudes of 1500 feet is about 48° F., while the seasonal averages range from about 30° F. in winter to 65° F. in summer. In winter temperatures usually descend as low as zero F., and in summer rise as high as 90° F. On the southern Alpine boundary, at altitudes of about 800 feet, the average temperature for the year is about 54° F., the variations ranging from 35° F. in winter to 72° F. in summer; but in winter the temperature usually does not descend below 15° F., and in summer may reach even 95° F. With increase of altitude above these regions there is on the average for the year a decrease in temperature of about 1° F. for each 330 feet of altitude; but the rate of decrease is much more rapid in summer than in winter. The average daily temperature is remarkably uniform in the Alps; but the temperature changes from day to night are excessive, on account of the intense action of the sun by day and the rapid cooling by radiation by night, as in all elevated regions. The absolute humidity decreases with the altitude, and is greater in summer than in winter. The relative humidity, and, consequently, the degree of cloudiness, is least in winter in the Alps, while in the surrounding region the relative humidity and cloudiness are usually greatest in winter.

On the north side the annual rainfall is from 25 to 40 inches; but this increases irregularly to about 90 inches on the southern side, where the steep slopes deflect upward the moisture-laden warm winds from the Mediterranean Sea. The average annual rainfall for the whole region cannot be far from 60 inches, while that of the surrounding lowlands is less than 35 inches. Where the high mountains have a copious rainfall on the windward side, the valleys on the leeward side experience a deficiency; so that on one side of a mountain range the rainfall may be many times that on the other side. Of the total annual rainfall throughout the Alps about 18 per cent. occurs in the spring and about 25 per cent. in winter. In summer the proportion decreases from 37 per cent. in the northern part to 25 per cent. in the south; but in the fall, on the contrary, the proportion increases from 20 per cent. in the north to 33 per cent. in the south. In the higher Alps much of the precipitation is of course in the form of snow, which is carried down to lower levels by glaciers and is there melted. The snow line in the Alpine mountains undergoes an annual variation, reaching its lowest altitude, about 2000 feet, toward the end of January, and its highest altitude, in the neighborhood of 9500 feet, about the middle of August. The limit differs for the northern and southern exposures, the snow line on the southern slopes lying over 150 feet higher in mid-winter, and about 1300 feet higher in the early fall. At low altitudes of 2000 to 3000 feet, the snowy days much exceed the number of days on which the ground remains snow-covered, but at altitudes of 8000 feet, the first snow commonly remains throughout the season of snow. The lower limit of perpetual snow is at an altitude ranging from 8500 feet to 9500 feet.

The general winds of the Alps follow the cyclonic and anti-cyclonic laws, which give a veering through the south when the cyclones pass to the north, as they usually do, and through the north when the cyclones pass to the south. Local winds are very prevalent; among these the mountain and valley winds, blowing upward from the valleys by day and downward from the mountains by night, are the most characteristic. In the Central and Northern Alps occur these hot, dry winds called the föhn. These are the result of descending air on the leeward side of the mountains after much of the moisture has been condensed by the cold high up on the windward side. These föhn winds, while a source of discomfort to the inhabitants, are welcomed in the spring, for they clear the ground of snow much more rapidly than the sun can accomplish it. Such is the evaporating power of the föhn winds that it may cause two feet of snow to disappear in half a day.

Fauna. The large native animals of the Alps are becoming scarcer and scarcer, by reason of the increasing number of sportsmen and the fact that the exploration habit, which is here practiced by tourists as in no other part of the world, has left scarcely a valley in untrodden seclusion. The wild cat, the brown bear, and the wolf have been driven into the more remote recesses, and are gradually becoming rare. The chamois and the ibex are found among the higher mountains, the haunts of the latter being among the inaccessible rocky solitudes bordering on the snow line. The pursuit of these animals is the most exciting and dangerous of European hunting sports. Foxes, weasels, and Alpine hares are plentiful, while otters and ermines are less numerous. The badger is common in the lower Alps, but the marmot is more distinctively an Alpine habitant, and it seems to maintain its numbers, and flourishes along with some smaller rodents in the higher altitudes even up to the snow line, the Alpine snow mouse having been found up to an altitude of 12,000 feet. The birds of the lower Alps are very numerous, consisting of the adjoining European species, and among the higher mountains are to be found eagles, hawks, and owls, and the smaller birds, choughs, snow finches, and larks. The great lammergeyer, once quite common in the higher Alps, has now become almost extinct. Game birds, such as woodcock, grouse, and partridges, are fairly abundant. Reptiles are not numerous. The lakes of the Alpine region contain a large variety of fishes; trout, salmon, and in some localities species of whitefish being the most important. Insects of all kinds flourish in the Alps. Butterflies and beetles are numerous, and extend up to snow altitudes. With increase of elevation, however, their colors become more and more subdued, and they become more and more deficient in wing power, thus necessitating a closer contact with the ground than prevails in like species below.

Flora. The forms of plant life of the Alps differ with the altitude, ranging from those common in Europe, at lat. 46°, to those typical of the arctic regions. The main subdivision of the Alpine plant growth is therefore into altitudinal zones; with increase of altitude there is a corresponding poleward change in the flora. The Alpine slopes are noted for their verdure up to the limits of vegetation; at low altitudes are the forests and meadows, while above these are the shrub and flower-decked pastures, which are such an important feature both in the landscape and in local life. At the base of the Alps on the south side, the lemon and olive flourish; but on the whole the prosperous growth of the vine may be taken as the most significant indication of plant life. With the grape occur the hardy plants of Central Europe, grains, and the principal deciduous trees, oak, beech, ash, sycamore, maple, chestnut, and walnut. These latter are to be found up to an altitude of 4000 or 5000 feet, when they give way to the coniferous trees, which, while plentiful only up to an altitude of 6000 to 7000 feet, are in places found at still greater elevations, where the fir, the larch, and the creeping pine are the chief species seen, together with shrubs of Central and Northern Europe. The Alpine roses and violets are celebrated for their beauty. The typical Alpine plants, those which grow above the tree line, in some instances up to the region of eternal snow, are characterized by a low, clumpy growth which sends forth at the proper season flower stalks which bear beautifully colored flowers. The blossoms of many species have peculiar hairy or woolly coatings. Gentians, violets, Alpine bells, edelrue, and the world famed edelweiss are among the beautiful flowering plants of the region. Shrubs, such as the juniper, dwarf willow, and dwarf rhododendron, also occur in some places in profusion. Above the highest altitude of flowering plants and stunted shrub growth, from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, algæ, mosses, and lichens are the only vegetable life. There is not, however, a uniform flora at the same altitude in all parts of the Alpine region. Some species are indeed common in the appropriate climatic zone throughout the whole region; but, on the other hand, some species are limited to the west Alps, while others are peculiar to the north, south, or east Alps. Some of the arctic plants are so narrowly limited in distribution as to be found only on certain mountain groups.

Bibliography. The list of writings relating to the Alps is a very long one, and embraces important works in all of the principal languages of Western Europe, French, German, Italian, and English. In fact, no other single region has been so much written about from a geographical point of view. For a detailed knowledge of the Alps, the publications of the various Alpine Clubs offer the richest sources of information. The chief of these clubs are: The English Alpine Club (organized in 1857), publishes The Alpine Journal (London), Deutscher (1869) und österreichischer (1862) Alpen-Verein (fused, 1874), 1800 members: Zeitschrift des Deutschen und Oesterreichischen Alpen-Vereins and Mittheilungen (Vienna); Club Alpin Suisse (1863), Annuaire and L’echo des Alpes (Geneva); Club Alpino Italiano (1863), Rivista mensile and Bollettino; Der österreichische Touristen-Club (1869), Oesterreicheische Touristen-Zeitung (Vienna); Le Club Alpin Français (1874), Bulletin mensuel and Annuaire (Paris); Der Verein der Naturfreunde (1877); Der Oesterreichische Alpen-Club (1878), Oesterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Vienna); Le Club Alpin International à Nice (1879); Der Alpen-Club Salzburg (1880); Sannthaler Alpen-Club (1880); Der Touristen-Verein Hermagor (1882); La Società degli Alpinisti Triestini (Roveredo). For the best general description of the combined features of the Alps, consult: F. Umlauft, The Alps, translated by Louisa Brough (London, 1889); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and Neighboring Countries (London, 1868); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (London, 1896); J. Tyndall, Hours of Exercise in the Alps (London, 1873); Rambert, Les Alpes Suisses, 5 volumes (Geneva. 1866–74); Desor, De l’orographie des Alpes (Neuchâtel, 1862); C. Lentheric, L’homme devant les Alpes (Paris, 1896); E. Suess, Die Entstehung der Alpen (Vienna, 1875); Schaubach, Die deutschen Alpen, 5 volumes (Jena, 1865–71); Studer, Ueber Eis und Schnee (Berne, 1896); Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (Jena, 1885); Noë, Deutsches Alpenbuch, 6 volumes (Glogau, 1875–88); Schlagintweit, Untersuchungen über die physikalische Geographie und Geologie der Alpen (Leipzig, 1850–54); Tschudi, Das Tierleben der Alpenwelt (Leipzig, 1892); Grube, Alpenwanderungen (Leipzig, 1886); Güssfeldt, In den Hochalpen (Berlin, 1892); Conway, The Alps from End to End (London, 1895); Conway and Coolidge, Climbers’ Guide to the Alps (London, 1890–93), which contains a bibliography; Whymper, Scrambles Among the Alps (London, 1893); Neumayr, Erdgeschichte (Leipzig, 1885–87); Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (Prague, 1883–88).

ALPINE SCENERY

CHILLON AND THE DENT DU MIDI