The Olive Its Culture in Theory and Practice/Chapter 2

by Arthur Tappan Marvin

 

 

Species

CHAPTER II.

"The domestic olive represents the artificial type obtained by means of art."⁠
Caruso.

The species of the olive known to exist and the localities where found are as follows:

Olea apetala, New Zealand. Oceanica. ⁠"⁠ paniculata, Australia. ⁠"⁠ Europea, ⁠" Olea floribunda, South America. America. ⁠"⁠ Americana; Fla., Ga., Carolina, Va. ⁠"⁠ Europea; Chili, Peru, Mexico, Cal., La., Miss., Fla., Arizona, New Mexico. Olea crysophylla, Abyssinia. ⁠"⁠ laurifolia, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ verrucosa, Cape of Good Hope. ⁠"⁠ verr. (brachybotris) ⁠" ⁠"⁠ capensis, ⁠" Africa. ⁠"⁠ foveolata, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ concolor, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ exasperata ⁠" ⁠"⁠ humilis, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ obtusifolia, Madagascar. ⁠"⁠ lancea, Mauritius. ⁠"⁠ Europea; Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Morocco, Canaries. Olea, pauciflora, Penang. ⁠"⁠ maritima, Islands, Strait of Malacca. ⁠"⁠ microcarpa, Cochin, China. Asia. ⁠"⁠ attenuata, Burmah. ⁠"⁠ dentata, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ Lindleyi, Bengal. ⁠"⁠ fragrans, China and Japan.

Olea, salicifolia, India. ⁠"⁠ dioica, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ cuspidata, Afghanistan. ⁠"⁠ compacta, India. Asia. ⁠"⁠ acuminata, longifolia, India. ⁠"⁠ roxburghiana, India, eastern. ⁠"⁠ heyneana, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ glandulifera, Nepaul, India. ⁠"⁠ acuminata, ⁠" ⁠"⁠ Europea; North Asia Minor, Syria, Kurdistan, Transcaucasia, North Persia, southern coast of Caspian sea, the southeast of Arabian peninsula. Europe.⁠ Olea Europea; the Mediterranean coast and Portugal.

The Olea Americana is known to the lumbermen of the Carolinas and Florida as devil-wood, the grain of the wood being so hard as to resist ordinary tools.

The berry of the Olea Fragrans of China is candied and used among the Chinese as a sweet, and the flowers to flavor and adulterate the finer kinds of teas.

The above enumeration is given chiefly as a curiosity. The species of interest to us is the Olea Europea, this being the only variety that has as yet repaid man's care by the increased size and weight of its berry. (See Plate I).

The olive (Olea Europea of Linneus), according to De Candolle, belongs to order CXXVII of the Oleaceae, to the tribe III of the Oleineae, to the genus VI, Olea, to the species N. 2, Europea, and was so called by Linneus to indicate that its home is there, that there it is cultivated by choice and has been held in honor from remotest antiquity. Some consider the name inappropriate on the ground that the olive was brought from Asia, but Caruso holds it to be correct because he believes it to be a native of Europe and the culture, only, brought from Asia.

We propose now to endeavor to classify the varieties of the Olea Europea in a brief and comprehensive manner.

It is evident that great confusion exists in the nomenclature of the olive. The ancient Italian authors enumerated comparatively few, from twelve to sixteen, but a modern writer on the subject in that country has summed up to over three hundred. Each locality where olives have been grown has added a name suggested by chance appearance or local prejudice, until a perfect chaos exists, utterly meaningless to anyone outside of the narrow section where it may be familiar. Take some of the Spanish names for instance, such as the "Rabbit's eye," the "Pillow-case", the "Little round"—these are absurd and convey no significance to anyone not living in the province in Spain where they may be grown. They are evidently given to impart the idea of the shape of different berries and in ignorance of the fact that olives should not be classified by the appearance of the fruit, but by the characteristics of the tree, for the very sufficient reason that trees of entirely different appearance and habits, produce berries very similar in form.

In this State we are likely, as olive culture progresses, to find great difficulty in recognizing what an olive is from its name. We were launched with some Spanish varieties which to us have become Mission, then a number of French plants became known, and lastly the Italian are coming in. The Spanish have never shown the world any good oil, although it could undoubtedly be made there. The quality is probably somewhat affected by the latitude.

The French for years have drawn the bulk of their supply of oil from Italy and to-day the oil provinces of Northern Italy are overrun with French oil buyers, and bad oil cannot be made good, although the French are adepts at anything of this kind. If their oil has merit it is because it was properly made. Italy is the fountain head. Italy has long been the source of all the good oil we have ever known. Italy has carried the cultivation of this tree to greater perfection than any other country on the globe. How can we then do better than follow the classification of Professor Caruso, Professor of Agriculture of the National University of Pisa, who at the instance of the Italian Government has given to the world a monograph on the olive which is perhaps the most profound and exhaustive work on the subject that has yet been written. He separates the olive under three heads as: The domesticated olive, the wild olive, the seedling of the cultivated olive; although two only, that of the domesticated olive and wild olive, would answer all practical purposes. The domesticated olive he assumes to have come from the East. The wild olive he believes to be the tree indigenous to all the coasts of the Mediterranean. The seedling of the cultivated tree is virtually a wild olive, as in only one case of a thousand will the seed ever reproduce the variety from which it came, but constantly returns to the wild type.

The following table will show the olives of Italy, France and Spain, grouped in their relative order of merit as oil olives, and it is interesting to note the position assumed by our own Mission in this comparison with the olives of the world.

Italy. France. Spain.

GROUP I.
Oil Press Olives.

Razzo (1) Frantojano Olivier de Grasse Cornicabra or Gorssajo Pleureur Mission Correggiolo   (2) Pendoulier Royal or Taggiasco Pendulina Gordal Racemi or Raci- noppe Racimal

GROUP II.
Middle Class
Olives.

Morinello Mouraou Nevadillo Blanco Morajolo        (3) Cayon de Marseille Varal Negro Pignolo Picholine Lechin Manzanillo

GROUP III.
Seedling Olives.

Mignolo         (4) Gremignolo Leccino Leccio            (5) Verdale Empeltre Columbaro Verdejo Puntarolo Trillo

GROUP IV.
Wild Olive.

Oleastro Acebuche

Group I represents the olive of the oil press, the most developed, cultured and domesticated of all olives. The fruit is of various sizes, very fleshy and oily. Sometimes, however, the olive is not very oily and then is only good for pickling. It is a large tree and above all others produces the best olives for oil.

Group II consists of middle-class olives, the tree is more rustic, the branches more robust and erect, the fruit more fleshy. Tree of middle stature.

Group III covers olives obtained from the seeds of domesticated olives; the most rustic of cultivated trees. Its branches are robust and erect, its fruit of various sizes but not very fleshy. A tree generally not growing very large but sometimes of rather good appearance.

Group IV represents the savage type which is not worth cultivating because the fruit is small and the stone is large, with little or no pulp. It grows to a bush or small tree of from ten to sixteen feet in height.

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DESCRIPTION OF OLIVES.

GROUP I.

The Razzo or Frantojano.

This is the variety mainly cultivated in the provinces of Lucca and Pisa, regions that have a world-wide reputation for their oil and where, also, are found in less numbers the Mignolo, Morajolo, Puntarolo and some Grossajo. The twigs of the Razzo are short, light, numerous and rather reflexed. (See Plate III.) It is cultivated in groves on the Pisan mountains where, however, the trees are too near together and as a result they grow too high. It will not bear much pruning; all that is necessary is to keep it freed from the dead twigs, from shoots that are too high and from branches that disturb the uniform distribution of the fronds. Its leaves are narrower at the insertion than at the apex, of a beautiful green on the upper side and a strong white on the lower.

In deep and rich soils it acquires great stature. Fogs, cold and variations of temperature do it harm, so much so that it loves protected sites, and the half hill, and in districts most exposed to frosts prefers the west and northwest exposures to defend itself against the danger of sudden thaws. It is immoderately fecund, to the degree that it buds even in the midst of blossoming. It retains its fruit badly, especially in wind or prolonged heat.

The berries are roundish, fleshy and richer in oil, than any other variety, on which account in the country about Calci, at the foot of the Pisan mountains, the people call them "frantojani" or, oil press olives. They commence to mature from November and December and turn to black and winey black.

Grossajo, Frantojo or Correggiolo.

This variety is most cultivated in the districts outside of Lucca and Pisa in the best exposures and sheltered spots where the soil is rich. It is as delicate as the Razzo but less fecund and the berry less oily.

It is distinguished from the preceding (see Plate IV) by its numerous long, subtle and flexible twigs, so that its top is rather spread out and makes the appearance of a willow. It becomes a large tree and like the Razzo needs little pruning.

The berries are larger than those of the Razzo, blown up at the extremity, curved like a bow on one side, and for oleosity stand next to the preceding. In comparison with the weight of the nut the flesh is less developed than the Morajolo. It matures at the same time as the Razzo, taking first a lilac color then a wine red and even black.

The Taggiasco.

This olive prevails in Liguria. It is sensitive to cold and fogs, so it prefers the low hills with a sunny exposure and mild temperature and defended from the north wind. It sends out a great number of twigs subtle, long and bent back which makes the top look sparse and willow like. It needs little pruning. It is a large tree especially in the spread of its branches. It buds and holds much fruit and carries it easily to maturity if not injured by excessive heat or harsh winds. The berries are fleshy, abundant in oil, middle-sized, pointed and bowed at one side. This olive in appearance seems like the Grossajo or Frantojo.

The Racemi or Racinoppe.

This olive is of middle stature and is fond of sheltered spots with rich and deep soils. Fogs do not harm it. It is very prolific, produces many blossoms and gives fruit in abundance. The berries form in bunches of five, six, seven and even nine in a cluster, and bend the branches to the ground with their weight.

The berries are long and bulged at the lower end, fleshy, but do not give as much oil in proportion as some of the foregoing. This olive has the peculiarity of fruiting on the wood of the year and is therefore an annual. It has been introduced into California as the Olea Oblonga, in allusion to its shape, but this is a confusion of terms as the real Olea Oblonga is the true Picholine. Besides the Racemi or Racimal is a better olive than the Oblonga or Picholine, and confusion in terms is what we are striving to avoid.

Olivier de Grasse or Plant de Solon is called also Tagbasquo, Cougniale, Olivier a fruit de cornouller, Olivier Pleureur, and is in fact the Olea Europea craniomorpha medio fructu cornu of Gouan, L'olea Europea corniola of Risso, L'olivier Pendulier of Riondet, L'olivo Taggiasco of Liguria and is really nothing else than our old friend the Mission olive.

The Cornicabra or Mission.

This olive according to Tablada is the largest known. Its limbs are straight and strong. The smaller branches have an inclination towards the ground, and even touch it, completely covering in the trunk. The bark is of a gray green. The under side of the leaf is a clear white and the upper a smooth dark green with the fibers well marked.

The berry is an inch and a half in height and three quarters of an inch in diameter. It weighs five grams, is a black red in color and is a clingstone. It gives a good oil, but is late in maturing and needs twelve thousand seven hundred degrees of heat, in order to ripen, from the time the flower appears until the olive is ready for the mill. It needs a careful pruning and frequent clearings. The wiser course is to cultivate thoroughly and give the tree fertilizers rather than to prune closely in order to force the sap into the bearing branches.

In Spain it may be said to be the favorite olive, but in some of the northern provinces where the tree is out of its element it gives no fruit at all but only attains a colossal size and hence is classed by the country people as a wild tree. But as we shall proceed to show it has none of the attributes of the wild tree, so far from it that it is one of the "oil press olives," one of the varieties most highly domesticated and cultivated that the world knows.

When olive culture and oil making come to be better understood, where each variety is given the treatment it demands and olives are gathered at the moment best suited for making the oil, we shall probably hear less about the lateness of the Cornicabra in ripening under a California sun.

Racimal.

A medium sized tree with branches that incline towards the ground, and of abundant blossoms. Resists cold and grows steadily in all kinds of soil. This is one of the earliest olives to ripen, gives a good oil in fair quantity, but it is easily detached from the tree, and many berries are lost on this account. It does not produce every year, but is apt to only give a crop every other year It needs especial care in pruning, for, although it is prodigal of leaves, the branches grow slowly and if this is not taken into account the tree will be left too bare and its fructification imperilled.

GROUP II—MIDDLE CLASS OLIVES.

The Morajolo or Morinello.

This olive is more rustic than the Razzo and Grossajo (see Plate V); it endures cold and wind better and contents itself with a lean and arid soil. It is the variety most general in Tuscany. Its twigs are short, subtle and rigid, tending upwards separating themselves little from the trunk and principal limbs. For this reason it has a top gathered in and loves to spread broad branches. It attains only a medium stature and is less noticeable than the Razzo and Grossajo. The leaves are narrower at the insertion than at the apex and have a more pallid tint on the lower side than those varieties. The olives are roundish and a little more fleshy than those of the Razzo. Relatively to its nut it has more flesh than the Grossajo but the oil is less fine. These are the first olives to change color, between October and November, dyeing themselves finally a splendid black.

The Mouraou or Olivier a fruit rond is called also Mourette Negrette. It is the Olea Europea precox of Gouan and Risso, L'olea media rotunda, nigra et rubra precox of Tournifort and others. It is similar to the Morajolo.

The Cayon de Marseille or Plant d'Aix is the Olea Europea subrotunda of Gouan, and is similar to the Morojolo in rank, form and flower.

The Picholine, Collias or Corrias, Olivier a petit fruit is the Olea Europea Oblonga of Gouan, L'Olivier Minares et Genevenses ex Provencia of C. Boubier, L'olea fructu oblonga minori of Tournifort. Named for one Picholini a farmer of the last century. This olive grows to be a very large tree when the conditions are favorable to it, otherwise it is of medium size only. It needs fertilizing in abundance. The branches are well set on and easy to direct, but should be renewed from time to time or they will be covered with warts to which this tree is much inclined. The principal branches are bent over with the weight of the fruit which is generally plentiful.

Contrary to the habit of most olives it does not thrive near the sea. About Marseilles a temperature of sixteen degrees Fahrenheit has been known to be fatal to it where in the interior it had successfully resisted a cold spell of six degrees. This olive needs particular care in pruning, so as not to leave the tree too bare of branches, in order to take advantage of its tendency to give abundant crops, but on the other hand the warts must not be allowed to multiply.

This olive seems to be a favorite in France where three varieties of it are known, but is entirely out of favor in Spain on account of its extraordinary tendency to multiply wart excrescences not only on the trunk but even up on the small branches and for which there is no cure but to cut the tree down to the crotch and let it start afresh.

This difference in habit of the same tree in France and Spain would seem to indicate the effect of soil and climate and so much the more so as these warts (which will be noticed in the chapter on diseases) cannot be traced to the attacks of any insect. Still the writer has noticed an olive tree badly afflicted with this disease in the vicinity of San Francisco, but it is doubtful whether it was the Picholine.

The late B. B. Redding, Esq., is credited with the introduction of the Picholine olive into California, after searching Europe for the plant best adapted to our soil and climate. All honor to Mr. Redding for his good intentions. But his knowledge of the olive at that early day must have been limited, and he appears to have fallen into the natural error of supposing that the largest berry was the most desirable; for on his return to this State he transferred a part of his original invoice of "Picholine" olives to Messrs. W. R. Strong & Co. of Sacramento as the Picholine or Queen olive, a large olive for pickling. Thus proving that his intention was to import the large Queen olive of Spain and also that he was imposed upon.

The jealousy of the European olive countries has already been noticed and the writer is strongly inclined to think that the olive recommended to Mr. Redding and imported into this State by him as the Picholine, may be one of the various forms of the wild olive. (See Plate II.) Note the similarity of growth, the size of the berry and the stone, and of its general characteristics; its extreme fecundity, its low stature and its hardiness in all situations. Now on the other hand, we know that the real Picholine, in a favorable soil, becomes a very large tree, with its branches all well set on and growing regularly, and not straggling out in the eccentric manner of the wild olive. Without discussing this point farther and granting that the olive generally known in California as the Picholine is all its advocates claim it to be, and that it is not the wild olive, it seems so near akin to it that it is utterly useless to cultivate it for the production of oil for it will not repay one for the care and space in the orchard given to it. The same quantity of oil is pressed from one Mission olive that is contained in five Picholines, one dried Mission olive weighing 27/100 grams and five dried Picholines, weighing 266/100 grams, showing plainly the difference of twenty per cent. in favor of the Mission olive and exactly the same quantity of oil being produced from each. Hence, the accepted Picholine olive will give only eight per cent. of oil, and that of an inferior quality, being largely made up from the essential oil contained in the stones. But this olive through its extreme rusticity and close relationship to the wild olive is, without doubt, the very best possible stock upon which to graft, and so, although the introduction of this plant may somewhat retard olive culture in this State, it may eventually prove a benefit.

The Nevadillo Blanco or Doncel is the Olea precox of Gouan. It is a tree of good appearance with the branches well set on and bowed over with the weight of the fruit which it generally bears. It is sensitive to cold and demands sheltered situations. It gives much oil of a fine quality. It ripens early, but needs careful pruning as its fruit shoots are somewhat sparse.

The Varal Negro; Plant etranger of Cuers.

This is a large tree in a favorable soil, limbs straight and long, twigs abundant. The wood is exceedingly hard. It ripens early, but is sensitive to cold and needs sheltered situations. It gives abundant fruit and good oil. It needs frequent and severe pruning to compel it to bear.

The Lechin or Picholine has been fully described.

The Manzanillo; Olea Pomiformis of Clemente; Spherica of Gouan; the French Ampoulleau.

This tree needs a good soil, fertilizers and water if the ground is too dry. Under these conditions it grows to a very large size. The wood is of a dark color. The limbs are long, smooth and curved, but the fruit twigs are apt to shrivel and die after the berries have prematurely fallen. This is apt to occur with the fruit of this tree as the berries are of such very large size and consequently heavy, and so are easily detached. For this reason it is a favorite olive for pickling as then the berries are picked green. The pruning should be limited to frequent trimming and to keeping the tree free from dead twigs and broken branches. It ripens very early and with little heat, requiring only ten thousand, seven hundred and ninety-five degrees of heat from flower to ripened berry.

GROUP III SEEDLING OLIVES.

The Mignolo or Gremignolo. (See Plate VI.)

This olive is cultivated for its rusticity and ability to resist clouds and salt sea winds, and where the Razzo, Grossajo and Morajolo do not thrive, the Mignolo will do well and give abundant crops. Its branches are longer than the Morajolo, less ramified, more rigid and more robust, with a tendency to grow up, on which account its top is inclined to grow high. So it requires energetic pruning to keep it down to a convenient height. The tree is not so large as the Morajolo. The leaves are whiter on the lower side, broadened from the middle upwards and very pointed. It flowers generally on the twigs that have filled out a year and are entering into a second year; quite contrary to the Morajolo and other varieties, which bud on wood which is two years old and is entering on a third. For this reason it flowers so abundantly, that it is a matter of doubt whether its name comes from this rich budding or the smallness of the fruit. From its facility in budding and retaining its fruit, it produces olives every year. They are round, and rather lacking in flesh and oil, and for size take a position between the Razzo and wild olive. It begins to mature in December, turning a wine red color. This olive best resists salt wind, dampness and fog.

The Leccino or Leccio. (See Plate VII.)

In appearance this variety most resembles the wild olive. The Leccino is mentioned by all the ancient Latin authors on the subject of the olive, and is the oldest variety that we are able to recognize. Its twigs are very robust, rigid and very long, and not at all ramified. The angle of insertion being about eighty degrees, hence the top is little united, and bends over much like a willow tree; therefore its name Leccio (Quercus Ilex). It is strong to resist wind and cold and the alternations of freezing and thawing. This was proved in the winter of 1871-72, when many Razzo, Grossajo, Marajolo, and even Mignolo, perished, while the Leccino resisted even a temperature of twelve degrees F. The Leccino leaves are very much broadened in the middle, and are obtuse and sharp pointed, the lower side being pale, as in the Mignolo. It flowers richly, and because of its rusticity holds firmly on to its fruit, and carries it to maturity in bunches of two, three, four and even five berries. It is very persistent to the peduncle, which is sometimes leaved as in the wild olive.

The berries are as large and fleshy as the Grossajo, but not so rich in oil. It matures toward the end of November, turning black in color. This is decidedly the olive to be cultivated where frost is most frequent and dangerous.

The Puntarolo. (See Plate VIII.)

This olive has erect twigs, but shorter, less robust and more subdivided than the Leccino; wherefore it forms its top less open, and has a tendency to grow more upward. It is a middle-sized tree, with leaves like those of the Leccino in form. It flowers rather fully and holds on tenaciously to its fruit, carrying to ripeness a goodly number of berries, which are in clusters of two, three and four, on peduncles leaved as are the Leccino. The berries, however, do not cling to the stem as tightly as the Leccino. These are ovate, and so pointed as to give the name of Puntarolo. They have less flesh than the Leccino and contain less oil, mature as late as the Gremignolo, and change as they do.

The Trillo olive has twigs as rigid and robust as the Puntarolo, rather long and little ramified, so as to appear like the Leccino and also a little like the wild tree. It is a middle-sized tree, its leaves broad, sharp and spinated in form, darker on the upper side and lighter on the lower than the Puntarolo, fecund in flower and fruit, which latter comes to maturity in bunches of three and four at very nearly the same time as the preceding variety. The berries hold on better than the Puntarolo, but not so well as the Leccino, and are ovate and pointed like the latter.

The Trillo and others called Morchiacci, and sometimes simply seedlings, are quite like one another in rusticity. Sometimes they endure cold as the Morchiacci, and sometimes the sea wind and cold as the Puntarolo and Trillo.

The Empeltre.

The Empeltre is a tree of small size, with erect and thinly populated branches, smooth bark, and shows great vigor in closing wounds made by the pruning knife. It both ripens early and resists cold. The tree bears fruit at an early age and in great quantity, and gives a good quality of oil, but it needs water fertilizers and a loose, rich soil in order to get the best result from it.

The Verdalier or Verdava, Verdal of Bezier, Verdava of Montpellier, Olea verdala of Gouan, L'olea media rotunda verdior of Tournifort, Verdajo of Tablada;
Similar to Leccino.

Tablada says of this olive that in Spain it is generally used for pickling, but that it also gives a good oil and ripens early. It will resist even more cold than the Cornicabra, but is found in all parts of the country. It requires a fertile soil and good cultivation, lathough it will accommodate itself to less favorable circumstances, but remember, in return it will only produce accordingly. It will bear vigorous pruning.

The Wild Olive. (See Plate II.)

The wild olive has twigs very robust, very long, contorted, rigid, little ramified and with angle at insertion of about eighty degrees. The leaves are obovate and very wide in proportion to length, are pointed, extending in a spine shape. The lower side is not as white as in the cultivated varieties. Even on wood that is scarcely a year old, it buds abundantly. It retains an enormous quantity of fruit, which hangs in bunches of three, four and five berries and which cling with tenacity to the stem. The berries mature late, and when fully ripe are black, and winey black. They are small (about .315 of a gramme), rather round and sharp at free end. The fleshy part is so thin as to be more like a thin skin than real meat. On the other hand the stone is very large, the seed well developed and often double. It grows slowly and as regards the appearance of its branches, it has a spiney look and is wonderfully strong against vicissitudes of climate, and in size it only reaches the height of a shrub or small tree. It carries to completion a great number of berries. It is well worth using for grafting and counts various varieties dependent on climate and soil.

COMPARISONS.

First—Form—(putting aside height).
The Razzo and Grossajo are most similar to each other.
The Leccino most like the wild tree.
Second—Form, size, fleshiness of berry.
The Razzo resembles the Morajolo.
The Grossajo ⁠"⁠"⁠ Leccino.
The Mignolo ⁠"⁠"⁠Wild Olive.
Third—Shape of olive and its appearance.
The Trillo resembles the Puntarolo.

CONCLUSIONS.

Olives are better described by the characteristics of the tree than by the form or size of the fruit. Note how very much alike in this respect are the Grossajo and the Leccino. Pendoulier and Verdale, Cornicabra and Verdejo and how far apart they rank in rusticity, stature and oiliness. Looking at the form of the nut we find that it follows invariably that of the olive. Whence it appears not to be true as has been heretofore believed, that the berries which are roundish and enlarged at the extremity vary in form from the nut and are therefore more fleshy and oily than the pointed ones. Greater fleshiness only can increase the oiliness of the fruit and this is entirely independent of the shape it may assume. In truth the richest in oil are the olives of Group I, or the oil press olives, which resemble in form the Morajolo, the Mignolo and even the very wild olive, that is to say are pointed and not round. Hence we are led to believe,

First—That the greater the rusticity of the tree, the less the ramification of the branches and the greater the persistency of the berries.

Second—That the form of the nut always follows that of the berry.

Third—That the form and size of the berry and nut has no influence on the quantity of oil.

Fourth—That the least fallacious indication of oiliness resides in the thickness and weight of the mesocarp.

The olives discussed are valuable for seed in the following order:

Wild, ⁠ Group IV, Wild olive. Trillo, ⁠ Group III, Seedlings. Puntarolo, Leccino, Mignolo, Morajolo, ⁠ Group II, Middle class. Grossajo, ⁠ Group I, Oil press olives. Razzo,

The berries most abundant in oil are as follows in order of merit:

Razzo, Grossajo, Morajolo, Mignolo, Leccino and others of the seedlings.

The California Mission olive is known to contain some inferior varieties, but the writer, at this period, is unable to specify them. On the Quito Farm the Cornicabra largely predominates over all others.