Brundtland Report

United Nations

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General Assembly

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Forty-second session

Item 83 (e) of the provisional aqenda*

1. The General Assembly, in its resolution 38/161 of 19 December 1983, inter alia, welcomed the establishment of a special commission that should make available a report on environment and the global prob1ématique to the year 2000 and beyond, includinq proposed strategies for sustainable development. The commission later adopted the name World Commission on Environment and Development. In the same resolution, the Assembly decided that, on matters within the mandate and purview ot the United Nations Environment Programme, the report ot the special commission should in the first instance be considered by the Governing Council of the Programme, for transmission to the Assembly together with its comments, and for use as basic material in the preparation, for adoption by the Assembly, of the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond.

2. At its fourteenth session, held at Nairobi from 8 to 19 June 1987, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme adopted decision 14/14 of 16 June 1987, entitled "Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development" and, inter alia, decided to transmit the Commission's report to the General Assembly together with a draft resolution annexed to the decision for consideration and adoption by the Assembly.

3. The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, entitled "Our Common Future", is hereby transmitted to the General Assembly. Decision 14/14 of the Governing Council, the proposed draft resolution and the comments ot the Governing Council on the report of the Commission can be found an the report of the Governing Council on the work of its fourteenth session. 1/

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Members of the Commission

Chairman: Gro Harlem Brundtland (Norway)

Vice Chairman: Mansour Khalid (Sudan)

Susanna Agnelli (Italy)

Saleh A. Al-Athel (Saudi Arabia)

Bernard Chidzero (Zimbabwa)

Lamine Mohammed Fadika (Côte d’Ivoire)

Volker Hauff (Federal Republic of Germany)

Istvan Lung (Hungary)

Ma Shijun (People's Republic of China)

Margarita Marino do Botero (Colombia)

Nagendra Singh (India)

Paulo Nogueira-Neto (Brazil)

Saburo Okita (Japan)

Shridath S. Ramphal (Guyana)

William D. Ruckelshaus (USA)

Mohamed Sahnoun (Algeria)

Emil Salim (Indonesia)

Bukar Shaib (Njgaria)

Vladimir Sokolov (USSK)

Janez Stanovnik (Yugoslauia)

Maurice Strong (Canada)

Ex Officio

Jim MacNeill (Canada)

CONTENTS

Acronym List and Note on Terminology

From One Earth to One World: An overview by the World Commission on Environment and Development

Part I: Common Concerns

1. A Threatened Future

Symptoms and Causes

New Approaches to Environment and Development

2. Towards Sustainable Development

The Concept of Sustainable Development

Equity and the Common Interest

Strategic Imperatives

Conclusion

3. The Role of the International Economy

The International Economy, the Environment and Development

Decline in the 1980s

Enabling Sustainable Deveropnent

A Sustainable World Economy

Part II: Common Challenges

4. Population and Human Resources

The Links with Environment and Development

The Population Perspective

A Policy Framework

5. Food Security: Sustaining the Potential Achievements

Signs of Crisis

The Challenge

Strategies for Sustainable Food Security

Food for the Future

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6. Species and Ecosystems: Resources for Development

The Problem, Character and Extent

Extinction Patterns and Trends

Some Causes of Extinction

Economic Values at Stake

New Approach: Anticipate and Prevent

International Action for National Species

Scope for National Action

The Need for Action

7. Energy: Choices for Environment and Development

Energy. Economy and Environment

Fossil Fuels: The Continuing Dilemma

Nuclear Energy: Unsolved Problems

Wood Fuels: The Vanishing Resource

Renewable Energy: The Untapped Potential

Energy Efficiency: Maintaining the Momentum

Energy Conservation Measures

Conclusion

8. Industry: Producing More with Less

Industrial Growth and its Impact

Sustainable Industrial Development in a Context

Strategies for Sustainable Industrial Development

9. The Urban Challenge

The Growth of Cities

The Urban Challenge in Developing Countries

International Cooperation

Part III: Common Endeavours

10. Managing the Commons

Oceans: The Balance of Life

Space: A Key to Sustainable Development

Antarctica: Towards Global Cooperation

11. Peace, Security, Development, and the Environment

Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict

Conflict as a Cause of Unsustainable Development

Towards Security and Sustainable Development

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12. Towards Common Action: Proposals for Institutional and Legal Change

The Challenge for Institutional and Legal Change

Proposals for Institutional and Legal Change

A Call for Action

Annexe 1. Summary of Proposed Legal Principles for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development

Annexe 2. The Commission and Its Work

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Throughout this report, quotes from some of the many people who spoke at WCED public hearings appear in boxes to illustrate the range of opinions the Commission was exposed to during its three years of work. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.

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ACRONYM LIST AND NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

ATS Antarctic Treaty System

CCAMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

CIDIE Committee of International Development Institutions on the Environment

CMEA Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

DIESA United Nations Department for International Economic and Social Affairs

ECB United Nations Environment Coordination Board

ECE Economic Commission for Europe

SEC European Economic Community

ERZ Exclusive Economic Zones

ELC Environment Liaison Centre

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GDP gross domestic p oduct

GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System

GESAMP Group of Experts on Scientific Aspect of Marine Pollution

GNP gross national product

GRID Global Resource Information Database

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions

IDA International Development Association

IUBP International Geosphere Biosphere Project (of ICSU)

IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis

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IIED International Institute for Environment and Development

ILO International Labour Organization

IMF International Monetary Fund

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

ITU International Telecommunications Union

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

IWC International Whaling Commission

LDC London Dumping Convention

MVA manufacturing value added

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NCS National Conservation Strategies

NGO non-governmental organizations

NICs newly industrialized countries

NUSS Nuclear Safety Standards

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

ODA Official Development Assistance

PPP Pollute: Pays Principle

TNCs transnational corporations

UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT)

UNCTAD United Nations Conference of Trade and Development

UNDA United Nations Disarmament Association

UNDRC Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator

UNEF United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

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WHO World Health Organization

WHO World Meteorological Organization

WRI World Resources Institute

WWF World Wildlife Fund

The grouping of countries in the presentation of data is indicated in the appropriate places. The term "industrial countries" generally encompasses the UN categories of developed market economies and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the USSR. Unless otherwise indicated, the term "developing country" refers to the UN grouping of developing-country market economies and the socialist countries ot Asia. The term "Third World", unless the context implies otherwise, generally refers to the developing-country marks; economies as defined by the UN.

Unless indicated otherwise, tone are metric (1,000 kiloqrammes or 2 204.6 pounds). Dollars are current U.S. dollars or U.S. dollars for the year specified. A/42/427 English Peee Il CHAlRMAN°S FOREHORD "A global agenda for change" — this was what the world Commission on Environment and Development was asked to formulate. It was an urgent call by the General Assembly of the United Nations: . to propose long—term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond: . to recommend ways concern for the environment may be translated into greater co-operation among developing countries and between coun ries at different stages of economical and social development and lead to the achievement of common and mutually supportive objectives that take account of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment, and development; . to consider ways and means by which the international community can deal more eff~-tively with environment concerns; and . to help define shared perceptions of long—term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protecting and enhancing the environment. a long—term agenda for action during the coming decades, and aspirational goals for the world community. Hhen I was called upon by the Secretary—General of the United Nations in December 1983 to establish and chair a special, independent commission to address this major challenge to the world community, I was acutely aware that this was no small task and obligation, nd that my day to day responsibilities as Party leader made it seem plainly prohibitive. what the General Assembly asked for also seemed to be unrealistic and much too ambitious. At the same time, it was a clear demonstration of the widespread feeling of frustration and inadequacy in the internz#` nal community about our own ability to address the vita zlobal issues and deal effectively with them. That tact is a compelling reality. and should not easily be dismiesed. Since the answers to fundamental and serious concerns are not at hand, there is no alternative but to keep on trying to find them.

A/42/427 English Pagê l2 All this was on my mind when the Secretary General presented me with an argument to which there was no convincing rebuttal: No other political leader had become Prime Minister with a background of several years of political struggle, nationally and internationally, as an environment minister. This gave some hope that the environment was not destined to remain a side issue in central, political decision making. ln the final analysis, I decided to accept the challenge. The challenge of facing the future, and of safeguarding the interests of coming generations. For it was abundantly clear: We needed a mandate for change. M I I I I He live in an era in the history of nations when there is greater need than ever for co—ord1nated political action and responsibility. The United Nations and its Secretary—General are faced with an enormous task and burden. Responsibly meeting humanity's goals and aspirations will require the active support of us all. My reflections and perspective were also based on other important parts of my own political experience: the preceding work of the Brandt Commission on North South issues, and the Palme Commission on security and disarmament issues, on which I served. I was being asked to help formulate a third and compelling call for political action: After Brandt's Programme for Survival and Common Crisis, and after Palme's Common Security, would come Common Future. This was my message when Vice Chairman Mansour Khalid and I started work on the ambitious task set up by the United Nations. This report, as presented to the UN General Assembly in 1987, is the result of that process. I I I I I Perhaps our most urgent task today is to persuade nations of the need to return to multilateralism. The challenge of reconstruction after the Second World Hat was the real motivating power behind the establishment of our post-war international economic system. The challenge of finding sustainable development paths ought to provide the impetus — indeed the imperative ~ for a renewed search for multilateral solutions and a restructured international economic system of co-operation. These challenges cut across the divides of national sovereignty, of limited strategies for economic gain, and of separated disciplines of science.

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[edit] CONTENTS

A/42/427 English Paqe I]

[edit] CHAIRMAN`S FOREWORD

HA global agenda for chanqeu - this was what the World Commission on Environment and Development was asked to formulate. It was an urgent call by the General Assembly of the United Nations: . to propose long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond; . to recommend ways concern for the environment may be translated into greater co-operation among developing countries and between coun ries at different stages of economical and social development and lead to the achievement of common and mutually supportive objectives that take account of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment, and development; . to consider ways and means by which the international community can deal more efflvtively with environment concerns; and . to help define shared perceptions of long-term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protecting and enhancing the environment, a lonqvterm agenda for action during the coming decades, and aepirational qoale for the world community. When I was called upon by the Secretary-General of the United Nations in December 1983 to establish and chair a special, indepvndent commission to address this major challenge to the worlu community, I was acutely aware that this was no small task and obligation, nd that my day to day responsibilities as Party leader made it seem plainly prohibitive. What the General Assembly asked for also seemed to be unrealistic and much too ambitious. At the same time, it was a clear demonstration of the widespread feelinq ot frustration and inadequacy in the lntern:#~Anal community about out own ability to address the vita zlobal issues and deal effectively with them. That tact is a compelling reality, and should not easily be dismissed. Since the answers to fundamental and serious concerns are not at hand, there ie no alternative but to keep on trying to find them.

A/42/427 English page [2 All this was on my mind when the Secretary General presented me with an argument to which there was no convincing rebuttal: No other political leader had become Prime Minister with a background of several years of political struggle, nationally and internationally, as an environment minister. This gave some hope that the environment was not destined to remain a side issue in central, political decision making. In the final analysis, I decided to accept the challenge. The challenge of facing the future, and of safeguarding the interests of coming generations. For it was abundantly clear: We needed a mandate for change. M ' i t O We live in an era in the history of nations when there is greater need than ever for co~ordinated political action and responsibility. The United Nations and its Secretary-General are faced with an enormous task and burden. Responsibly meeting humanity's qoals and aspirations will require the active support of us all. My reflections and perspective were also based on other important parts of my own political experience: the preceding work of the Brandt Commission on North South issues, and the Palme Commission on security and disarmament issues, on which I served. I was being asked to help formulate a third and compelling call for political action: After Brandt's Programme for Survival and Common Crisis, and after Palme`s Common Security, would come Common Future. This was my message when Vice Chairman Mansour Khalid and I started work on the ambitious task set up by the United Nations. This report, as presented to the UN General Assembly in 1987, ie the result of that process. @ O t ' O Perhaps our most urgent task today is to persuade nations of the need to return to multilateraliem. The challenge of reconstruction after the Second World War was the real motivating power behind the establishment of our poet-war international economic system. The challenge of finding eustainable development paths ought to provide the impetus - indeed the imperative N for a renewed search for multilateral solutions and a restructured international economic system of cowoperation. These challenges out across the divides of national sovereiqnty, of limited strategies for economic gain, and of separated disciplines of science.

A/42/427 [`fm;} jgh Pnqv 1% After a decade and a half of a standstill or oven deterioration in global co-operation, I believe the time has come for hlqhe. oxpoctatlons. for common qoale pursued together. for an increased political will to address our common future. There was a time of optimism and progress In the 1960e, when there was greater hope for a braver now world. and fo: progressive international ideas. Colonies blessed with natural resources were becoming nations. The ideals of co~operat1on and sharing seemed to be seriously pursued. Paradoxically, the 1970s slid slowly into hoods of reaction and isolation while at the same time a series of UN conforoncoo offered hope for greater co-operation on major issues. The 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment brought the industrlallzod and developing nations together to delineate the urlqhtsu of the human family to a healthy and productive environment. A string of such meetings followed: on the rights of people to adequate food. to sound housing, to safe water. to access to means of choosing the size of their families. The present decade has been marked by a retreat from social concerns. Scientists bring to our attention urgent but complex problems bearing on our very survival: a warming globe. throats to the Earth'a ozone layer. deserts consuming agricultural land. We respond by demanding more details, an` by assigning the problems to institutions ill equipped to cope with them. Environmental degradation, first seen as mainly a problem of the rich nations and a side effect of industrial wealth, has become a survival issue for developing nations. It is part of the downward spiral of linked ecoloqical and economic decline in which many or the poorest nations are trapped. Despite official hope expressed on all sides, no trends identifiable today. no proqrammes or policies, offer any real hope of narrowing the growing gap between rich and poor nations. And as part of our Hdevelopmentu, we have amassed weapons arsenale capable of diverting the paths that evolution has followed for millions of years and of creating a planet otr ancestora would not recognize. When the terms of reference of our Commission were originally being discussed in 1982, there were those who wanted its considerations to be limited to Henvlronmental issueau only. This would have been a grave mistake. The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions. ambitione, and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human concerns have given the very word V Henvironmentu a connotatlon of naivety in some political circles. The word Hdevelopmentu has also been narrowed by some into a very limited focus. along the lines of uwhat poor nations should do to become richern, and thus again is automatically dismissed by many in the international arena as being a concern of specialiate, of those involved in questions of Hdevelopment aseistanceu.

A/42/427 Enql is-ah Paqe lq But the uenvlronmentu Ie where we all live; and Hdevelopmentu Ie what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. Further. development leeuee must be seen as crucial by the political leaders who feel that their countries have reacned a plateau towards which other nations muet strive. Many of the development paths of the induetrlallzed natlone are clearly uneustainahle. And the development decisions of these countries, because of their great economic and political power, will have a profound effect upon the ability of all peoples to euetain human progress for generations to come. Many critical survival leeuee are related to uneven development, poverty, and population growth. They all place unprecedented preeeuree on the planet's lande, waters, foreete, and other natural resources, not least in the developing countries. The downward eplral of poverty and environmental degradation is a waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular, It ie a waste of human resources. These links between poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation formed a major theme in our analysis and recommendations. What ie needed now ie a new era of economic growth qrowth that ie forcotul and at the same time socially and environmentally euetalnable. Due to the scope of our work, and to the need to have a wide perspective, l was very much aware of the need to put together a highly qualified and influential political and scientific team, to constitute a truly independent Commission. This was an essential part of a successful process. Together. we should span the qlobe, and pull together to formulate an interdisciplinary, integrated approach to global concerns and our common future. We needed broad participation and a clear majority of members from developing countries, to reflect world realities. We needed people with wide experience, and from all political fields, not only from environment or development as political disciplines, but from all areas of vital decision making that influence economic and eocial proqrees, nationally and internationally. We therefore come from widely differing backqroundo: foreign mlnistere. finance and planning officials. policymakere in agriculture, science, and technology. Many of the Commissioners are cabinet minietere and senior economiets in their own nations, concerned largely with the affairs of those countries. As Commieeionere, however, we were acting not in our national rolee but as individuals; and as we worked, nationaliem and the artificial divides between uinduetrializedn and Hdevelopinqu, between East and West, receded. In their place emerged a common concern for the planet and the interlocked ecoloqical and economic threats with which its people, institutions, and governments now grapple. /.H

A/42/427 Hnql iah Paqe [`S During the time we met as a Commission, tragedies euch as the African famlnes, the leak at the peetlcldee factory at Bhopal, India, and the nuclear dleaeter at Chernobyl. USSR appeared to justify the grave predictions about the human future that were becoming commonplace during the mid*l960e. But at public hearinqe we held on five contlnente. we also heard from the individual vlctlme of more chronic, widespread dieaetere: the debt crisis, etaqnatinq aid to and lnveetment in developing countries, falling commodity prices and falling pereonal incomes. We became convinced that major changes were needed, both in attitudes and in the way our eocietiee are organized. The question of population - of population preeeure. of population and human rights - and the links between theee related leeuee and poverty, environment, and development proved to be one of the more difficult concerne with which we had to struggle. The differences of perspective seemed at the outset to be unbrldqeable, and they required a lot of thought and willingness to communicate across the divides of cultures, religione, and reqione. Another euch concern was the whole area of international economic relatlone. In theee and in a number of other important aspects of our analysis and recommendations, we were able to develop broad agreement. The fact that we all became wiser. learnt to look acroee cultural and historical barriere. wae eeeential. There were momente of deep concern and potential crieie, momente of gratitude and achievement, momente of eucceee in building a common analyele and perspective. The result is clearly more global, more realistic, more forward looking than any one of us alone could have created. We joined the Commission with different views and perepectivee. different valuee and beliefs, and very different experiences and ineighte. After theee three years of working together, travelllnq, listening, and discussing, we present a unanimous report. I am deeply grateful to all the Commissioners for their dedication, their foresight and personal commitment to our common endeavour. It has been a truly wonderful team. The spirit of trlendehip and open communication, the meeting of minds and the proceee of learninq and eharinq, have provided an experience of optimism, something of great value to all of ue, and, I believe, to the report and its meeeaqe. We hope to share with others our learning process, and all that we have experienced together. It ie something that many others will have to experience if global euetainable development is to be achieved. The Commission has taken guidance from people in all walks ot life. It in to these people to all the peoples ot the world that the Commission now addressee itself.

A/42/42Y Hnq I lnh Patio lb In so dolnq we speak to people directly as well as to the institutions that they have established. The Commission is addressing governments. directly and through their various agencies and ministries. The congregation of governments, gathered in the General Assembly of the United Nations. will be the main recipients of this report. The Commission is also addressing private enterprise, from the one-person business to the great multinational company with a total economic turnover greater than that of many nations, and with possibilities for brlnqinq about far~reachinq changes and improvements. But first and foremost our message Is directed towards people, whose wellwbeinq is the ultimate goal of all environment and development policies. In particular, the Commission is addressing the young. The world's teachers will have a crucial role to play In bringing this report to them. If we do not succeed in putting our message of urqency through to today's patents and decision makers, we risk undermining our children`s fundamental right to a lealthy, life-enhancing environment. Unless we are able to translate our words into a language that can reach the minds and hearts of people younq and old. we shall not be able to undertake the extensive social changes needed to correct the course of development. The Commission has completed its work. We call for a common endeavour and for new norms of behavlour at all levels and in the interests of all. The changes in attitudes, in social values, and in aspirations that the report urges will depend on vast campaigns of education, debate and public participation. To this end. we appeal to Hcitlzensu groups, to nonMgovernmental organizations, to educational institutions, and to the scientific community. They have all played indispensable roles in the creation of publi awareness and political change in the past. They will play a crucial part in putting the world onto sustalnable development paths, in laying the groundwork for Our Common Future. The process that produced this unanimous report proven that it is possible to join forces, to identify common qoals, and to agree on common action. Each one of the Commissioners would have chosen different words if writing the report alone. Still, we managed to agree on the analysis, the broad remedies, and the recommendations for a snstainable course of development. /

A/42/427 F l-lnql is): Paqe I7 In the final analysis, this is what it amounts to: furthering the common understanding and common spirit of responsibility so clearly needed in a divided world. I t t t l Thousands of people all over the world have contributed to tho work of the Commission, by intellectual moans. by financial moans, and by sharing their experiences with us through articulating their hoods and demands. I am sincerely grateful to everyone who has made such contributions. Many of their names are found in Annoxo 2 of the report. My particular gratitude goes to Vice Chairman Mansour Khalxd. to all the other members of the Commission. and to Secretary General Jim Machelll and his staff at our socrotariat, who went above and beyond the call of duty to assist us. Their enthusiasm and dedication Know no limits. I want to thank the chairmen and members of the Interqovernomental Inter-eeesional Preparatory Committee, who co-operated closely with the Commission and provided inspiration and support. I thank also the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme. Dr. Moetafa Tolba, for his valuable. continuous support and interest. Gro Harlem Brundtland Oslo. 20 March 1907

A/42/427 l-inql ish Page 18 FROM ONE EARTH TO ONE WORLD An Overview by the World Commission on Environment and Development 1. In the middle of the 20th century, we saw our planet from space for the first time. Historians may eventually find that this vision had a greater impact on thought than did the Copernican revolution of the leth century. which upset the human eelf-image by revealing that the Earth is not the centre ot the universe. From space, we see a small and fragile ball dominated not by human activity and edifice but by a pattern of clouds, ooeans. greenery. and soils. Humanity's inability to fit its activities into that pattern in changing planetary systems, fundamentally. Many such changes are accompanied by life-threatening hazards. This new reality, from which there is no escape, must be recognized - and managed. 2; Fortunately. this new reality coincides-with more positive developments new to this century. We can move information and goods ta ter around the globe than ever before: we ran produce more food and more goods with lee< investment of resources; our technology and science gives us at least the potential to look deeper into and better understand natural systems. From space, we can see and study the Earth as an organism whose health depends on the health of al its parts. We have the power to reconcile human affairs with natural laws and to thrive in the process. In this our cultural and epiritual heritages can reinforce our economic interests and survival imperatives. 3. This Commission believes that people can build a future that is more prosperous, more just. and more secure. Our report. gur_gogaon_[uture, is not a prediction or ever increasing environmental decay, poverty, and hardship in an ever more polluted world among ever decreasing resources. We see instead the possibility for a new era of economic growth. one that must be based on policies that sustain and expand the environmental resource base. And we believe euch growth to be absolutely essential to relieve the great poverty that is deepening in much of the developing world. 4. But the Comnieeion'e hope for the future is conditional on decisive political action now to begin managing environmental reeourcee to ensure both euetainable human progress and human survival. We are not forecasting a future; we are serving a notice | an urgent notice baaed on the latest and beet scientific evidence - that the time has cone to take the decisions needed to secure the resources to sustain this and coming generations. We do not offer a detailed blueprint for action, but instead a pathway by which the peoples of the world may enlarge their sphere: of cooperation. /.U

A/42/427 English Paqe 19 I. THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE 1. Successes and [ailures 5. Those looking for success and signs of hope can find many: infant mortality is falling; human life expectancy is increasing: the proportion of the world's adults who can read and write is climbing; the proportion of children starting school is rising; and global food production increases faster than the population grows. 6. But the same processes that have produced these gains have given rise to trends that the planet and its people cannot long bear. These have traditionally been divided into failures of `development' and failures in the management of our human environment. On the development side. in terms of absolute numbers there are more hungry people in the world than over before, and their numbers are increasing. So are the numbers who cannot read or write, the numbers without safe water or safe and sound homes. and the numbers short of woodtuel with which to cook and warn themselves. The gap between rich and poor nations is widening - not shrinking - and there is little protpeot, given present trends and institutional arrangements. that this process will be reversed. 7. There are also environmental trends that threaten to radically alter the planet, that threaten the lives of many species upon it. including the human species. Each year another 6 million hectaros of productive dryland turns into worthless desert. Over three decades, this would amount to an area roughly as large as Saudl Arabia. More than-ll million hectares of forests are destroyed yearly, and this. over three decadss, would equal an area about the size of India. Much of this forest is converted to low-grade farnland unable to support the farmers who settle it. In Europe. acid precipitation kills forests and lakes and damages the artistic and architectural heritage of nations; it may have acidified vast tracts of soil beyond reasonable hope of repair. The burning of fossil fuels puts into the atmosphere carbon dioxide, which is causing gradual global warming. This 'greenhouse effect' may by early next century have increased average global temperatures enough to shift agricultural production areas, raise sea levels to flood coastal cities, and disrupt national economies. Other industrial gases threaten to deplete the planet's protective ozone shield to such an extent that the number of human and aniqal cancers would rise sharply and the oceans' food chain would be disrupted. Industry and agriculture put toxic substances into the human food chain and into underground water tables beyond reach ot cleansing. 8. There has been a growing realization in national governments and multilateral institutions that it is Impossible to separate economic development issues from environment issues: many forms of development erode the environmental resources upon which they must be based, and environmental degradation can undermine economic development. Poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems. It is therefore futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader |

AV44/427 HR`}! lash {`am- :0 perspective that encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality. 9. These concerns were behind the establishment in 1983 of the World Commission on Environment and Development by the UN General Assembly. The Commission is an independent body, linked to but outside the control of governments and the UN system. The Connission*s mandate gave it three objectives: to re-examine the critical environment and development issues and to formulate realistic proposals for dealing with then; to propose new forms of international cooperation on these issues that will influence policies and events in the direction of needed changes; and to raise the levels of understanding and commitment to action of individuals, voluntary organizations, businesses, institutes, and governments. 10. Through our deliberations and the testimony of people at the public hearings we held on five continents, all the conniosionere cane to focus on one central theme: many present development trends leave increasing numbers of people poor and vulnerable. while at the sane time degrading the environment. How can each development serve next century's world of twice as many people relying on the same environment? This realization broadened our view of development. We came to see it not in its restricted context of economic growth in developing countries, We came to see that a new development path was required, one that sustained human progress not just in a few places for a teu years. but for the entire planet into the distant future. Thus `suatainable development' becomes a goal not just for the 'developing' nations, but for industrial ones as well. 2. The lnterlogking Crises ll. Until recently, the planet was a large world in which human activities and their effects were neatly compartmentalized within nations, within sectors (energy. agriculture, trade), and within broad areas of concern (environment, economics, social). These compartments have begun to dissolve. This applies in particular to the various global 'crises' that have seized public concern, particularly over the past decode. These are not separate crises: an environmental crisis. a development crisis, an energy crisis. They are all one. 12. The planet is passing through a period of dramatic qrowth and fundamental change. Our human world of 5 billion must make room in a finite environment for anothex human world. The population could stabilize at between 8 and 14 billion sometime next century, according to UN projections. More than 90 per cent of the increase will occur in the poorest countries, and 90 per cent of that growth in already buretinq cities. l3. Economic activity has multiplied to create a $13 trillion wosld economy, and this could grow five~ or tenfold in the coming halt century. Industrial production has grown more than fiftyfold over the past century. four fitths of this growth since 1950. Such tiqures reflect and presaqe profound impacts upon the

A/42/447 Hnq I lnh Ihuje- P} The World commission on Environment and Development first not in October 1984, and published its Report 900 days later, in April 1987. Over those few days:

• The drought-triggered. environment-development crisis in

Africa peaked, putting 35 million people at risk, killing perhaps a million.

• A leak from a pesticides factory in Bhopal, India. killed

more than 2.000 people and blinded and injured over 200,000 more.

• Liquid gas tanks oxploded in Mexico City, killing 1,000 and

leaving thousands more homeless.

• The Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion sent nuclear

fallout across Europe. increasing the risks of future human cancere.

• Agricultural chemicals, eolvents. and mercury flowed into

the Rhine River during a warehouse fire in Switzerland. killing millions of fish all threatening drinking water in the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands.

• An estimated 60 million people died of diarrhoeal diseases

related to unsafe drinking water and malnutrition; most ot the victins were children. bioephere, as the world invests in houses. transport, farms. and industries. Much of the economic growth pulls raw material from forests, eoils, seae, and waterwaya. 14. A nainoprinq of economic growth is new technology, and while this technology offers the potential for slowing the dangerously rapid consumption of finite resources, it also entails high risks, including new forms of pollution and the introduction to the planet of new variations of life formo that could change evolutionary pathways. Meanwhile, the industries most heavily reliant on environmental resources and most heavily polluting are growing most rapidly in the developing world, where there is both more urqency for growth and less capacity to minimize damaging side effects. 15. These related changes have locked the global economy and global ecology together in new ways. We have in the past been concerned about the impacts of economic growth upon the environment. We are now forced to concern ourselves with the impacts of ecoloqical stress - degradation of soils, water regimen. atmosphere, and forests upon our economic prospects. We have in the more recent past been forced to face up to a sharp increase in economic interdependence among nations. We are now forced to accustom ourselves to an accelerating ecologxcal interdependence among nations. Ecology and economy are becoming ever more interwoven locally, regionally, nationally, and qlobally into a seamleso net of causes and effects.

A az/4zv I-Inql inn Paqv 2 2 16. Impoveriehinq the local resource base ci impoverish wider areas: deforeetation by highland farmers cauuee flooding on lowland farms; factory pollution robs local fishermen of their catch. Such grin local cycles now operate nationally and regionally. Dryiand degradation eende environmental refugees in their millions acroes national borders. Deroreetation in Latin America and Asia ie causing more floods, and more destructive floods, in downhiil. downstream nations. Acid precipitation and nuclear fallout have spread across the bordars ot Europe. Similar phenomena are emerging on a global scale, such as global warming and lose of ozone. Internationally traded hazardovq chemicals entering toode are themselves internationally traded. In the next century, the environmental pressure causing population movemente may be increase sharply. while barriers to that movement may be even firmer than they are now. 17. Over the past few Cecadee, life-threatening environmental concerns have surfaced in the developing world. Countryeidee are coming under pressure from increasing numbers or farmers and the landleae. Cities are filling with people. cax . and factoriee. Yet at the eane time these developing countries must operate in a world in which the resources gap between most developing and induetrial natione is widening. in which the industrial world do`inatee in the rule-nakinq of some key international bodies, and in which the induetrial world has already ueed much of the planet's ecoloqical capital. This inequality is the planet's main 'environmental' problem; it ie aleo its main 'development` problen 18. International econowic relationehips poee a particular problem for environmental management in many developing countries. Agriculture, toreetry, rner,y oroduction, and mining generate at least half the qroee national product of many developing countries and account for even larger enaree or livelihood. and employment. Exports of natural reeourcee remain a large factor in their econoniea, especially for the leaet developed. Moat of these countriea race enormoue economic preeaureo, both international and domestic, to overexploit their environnental resource base. 19. The recent crisis in Africa beet and most traqivally illustrates the ways in which economics and ecology can interact destructively and trip into disaster. Triggered by drought, its real caueee lie deeper` They are to be found in part in national policies that gave too little attention, too late, to the needs of amallhoider agriculture and to the threats posed by rapidly rising populations. Their roots extend aleo to a global economic eyetem that takes more out of a poor continent than it puts in. Debt` that they cannot pay force African nations relying on commodity ealee to overuse their fragile eoila, thua turning good land to 'alert. Trade barriere in the wealthy nations E and in many devriopinq natione - make it hard for African natione to sell their qoode for reasonable returns, putting yet more pressure on ecological eyeteme. Aid from donor nations han not only been inadequate in ecal . but too often hae reflected the priorities of the nations qivinq the aid, rather than the needs I the recipients.

A/42/427 Hnq] lsh Paqe 2 3 The Commission has sought ways in which global development can be put on a sustainable path into the 2lst Century. Some 5.000 days will elapse between the publication of our report and the first day of the Zlot Century. What environmental crises lie in store over thoet b,OOO days? During the 19706. twice as many people suffered each year from `natural' disaeters as during the l960s. The disasters most directly associated with environment/development nisnanagement - drouqhts and floods - affected the most people and lncreaeed most sharply in terms of numbers affected. Some 18.5 million people were affected by drought annually in the l960s, 24.4 million in the 1970H. There were 5.2 million flood victime yearly in the 19608. 15.4 million in the l970s. Numbers of victins of cycloneu and earthquakea also shot up as growing numbers of poor people built unsafe houses on dangerous ground. The results are not in for the 1980s But we have seen 35 million afflicted by drought in Africa alone and tena of millions affected by the better managed and thus lesu~publicized Indian drought. Floods have poured oft the deforosted Andes and Hinalayas with increasing force. The l9BOs seem destined to sweep this dire trend on into a crisie~filled l990s. 20. The production base or other developing world areas suffers similarly from both local failures and from the workings of international economic systems. As a consequence of the 'debt crisis' of Latin America. that contlnent*a natural resources are now being used not for development but to meet financial obligations to creditor. abroad. Thle approach to the debt problem is short-sighted from several ~tandpoints: economic. political. and environmental. It requires relatively poor countries simultaneously to accept qrowlnq poverty While exporting growing amounts of scarce resources. 21. A majority of developing countries now have lower per capita incomes than when the decade began. Rising poverty and unemployment have increased pressure on environmental resources as more people have been forced to rely more directly upon them. Many governments have cut back efforts to protect the environment and to bring ecologiral considerations into development planning. 22. The deepening and widening environmental crisis presents a threat to national security ~ and even survival - that say be greater than well-armed, ill~dispoued neiqhbours and unfriendly alliances. Already in parts of Latin America. Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, environmental decline is becoming a source of political unrest and international teneion. The recent destruction of much of Atrica's dryland agricultural production was pore severe than if an invading army had pursued a scorched-earth policy. Yet most of the affected governments still spend tar more to protect their people [rom invading armies than from the invading desert. |

A/44/427 Hnqlinh Pmjtl 24 23. Globally, mllitary expenditures total about $1 trillion a year and continue to grow. In many countries, military spending consumes such a high proportion of GNP that it itself does great damage to these societies' development efforts. Governments tend to base their approaches to 'security` on traditional definitlons. This is most obvious in the attempts to achieve security through the development of potentially planet~destroyinq nuclear weapons systems. Studies suggest that the cold and dark nuclear winter following even a limited nuclear war could destroy plant and animal ecoeystems and leave any human survivors occupying a devastated planet very different from the one they inherited. 24. The arms race - in all parts of the world - pre-empts resources that might be used more productively to diminish the security threats created by environmental conflict and the reeentnente that are fuelled by widespread poverty. 25. Many present efforts to guard and maintain human progress, to meet human needs. and to realize human ambltions are simply uneustalnable - in both the rich and poor nationo. They draw too heavily, too quickly. on already overdrawn environmental resource accounts to be affordable tar into the future without bankrupting those accounts. They may show profitt on the balance sheets of our generation, but our children will inherit the losses. we borrow environmental capital from future generations with no intention or prospect of repaying. They may damn us for our mpendthrift ways, but they can never collect on our debt to them. We act as we do because we can qet away with it: future generations do not vote; they have no political or financtal power; they cannot challenge our decisions. 26. But the results of the present profllqacy are rapidly closing the options for future generations. Most of today's decision makers will be dead before the planet reels the heavier effects of acid precipitation, global warming, ozone depletion, or widespread deeertlfication and spwciee lose. Most of the young voters of today will still be alive. In the Commission`s hearings it was the young, those who have the most to lose, who were the horshest critics of the planet`s present management. 3. Sustolnghle Develooment 27. Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits M not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the bxosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But technology and social organization can be both managed and improved to make way xor a new era of economic qrowth. The Commission believes that widespread poverty is no longer inevitable. Poverty is not only an evil in itself, but euetainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to

A/42/427 I-Inql inh {"up- Zr) fulfil their aepirarions for a better life. A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and other cetaetrophee. 28. Meeting essential needs requires not only a new era of economic growth for nations in which the majority are poor, but an assurance that those poor get their fair share of the resources required to sustain that growth. Such equity Would be aided by political systems that secure effective citizen participation in decision making and by greater democracy in international decision making. 29. Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent adopt life-styles within the planet's ecological means 7 in their use of energy. for example. Further. rapidly growing populations can increase the pressure on resources and slow any rise in living standards; thus eustainable development can only be pursued if population size and growth are in harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecoeyeten. 30. Yet in the end, sustainable development ie not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of inveetments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward. Painful choices have to be made. Thus, in the final analysis. sustainable development must rest on political will. g. The Institutional Caps 31. The objective of suetainable development and the integrated nature of the global environment/development challenges pose problere for institutions, national and international, that were established on the basis of narrow preocoupatione and compartmentalized concerns. Governments' general response to the speed and scale of global ohanqes has been a reluctance to recognize sufficiently the need to change themselves. The challenges are both interdependent and integrated, requiring comprehensive approaches and popular participation. 12. Yet most of the institutions facing those challenges tend to be independent. traqmented, working to relatively narrow mandates with closed decision processes. Those responsible for managing natural resotrces and protecting the environment are institutionally separated from those responsible (or managing the economy. The real world of interlocked economih and ecoloqical systems will not change; the policies and institutions concerned must. A]. There is a growing need for effective international cooperation to manage ecological and economic interdependence. Yet at the same time, confidence an international organizations is diminishing and support for them dwindling. |

A/42/427 Hnql lnh l'.`lqt* 26 34. The other great institutional flaw in coping with environment/development challenges is governments' failure to make the bodies whose policy actions degrade the environment responsible (or ensuring that their policies nrevcnt that degradation. Environmental concern aroee from damage caused by the rapid economic growth following the Second World War. Governments, pressured by their citizene, saw a need to clean up the mess, and they established environmental ministries and agencies to do this. Many had great success - within the limits of their mandates - in improving air and water quality and enhancing other resources. But much of their work has of necessity been after-the-tact repair of damage: reforestation, reclaiming desert lands. rebuilding urban environments, restoring natural habltats, and rehabilitatinq wild lands. 38. The existence of such agencies gave many governments and their citlzene the false impression that these bodies were by themselves able to protect and enhance the environmental resource base. Yet many lndustrialized and most developing countries carry huge economic burdens from inherited problems such as air and water pollution, depletion or qrounduater, and the proliferation of toxlc chemicals and hazardous wastes. These have been joined by more recent problems - erosion. deeertlflcatlon, acidlfication, new chemicals. and new forms of waste - that are directly related to agricultural, industrial. energy, foreetry, and transportation policies and practices. 36. The mandates of the central economic and sectoral ministries are aleo often too narrow, too concerned with quantities of production or growth. The mandates of ministries of industry jlclude production targets. while the accompanying pollution is left to ministries of environment. Electricity boards produce power, while the acld pollution they also produce ie left to other bodies to clean up. The present challenge is to give the central economic and sectoral ministries the responsibility for the quality or those parte of the human environment affected by their decisions. and to give the environmental agencies more power to cope with the effects of uneuetaihmble development. 37. The same need for chanqe holds for international agencies concerned with development lending, trade regulation, agricultural development, and so on. These have been slow to take the environmental effects of their work into account. although some are trying to do so. 38. The ability to anticipate and prevent environmental damage requires that the ecoloqical dimensions of policy be considered at the same time as the economic, trade. energy. agricultural, and other dlmenelone. They should be considered on the same aqendae and in the sane national and international inetltutlone. 39. This reorlentation is one of the chief institutional challenges of the l990e and beyond. Meeting it will require major institutional development and reform. Many countries that are too poor or small or that have limited managerial capacity will find it difficult to do this unaided. They will need /.U

A/42/427 Hnql inh Paqo 27 financial and technical assistance and training. But the changes required involve all countries, large and small. rich and poor.

[edit] II. THE POLICY DIRECTIONS

40. The Commission has focused its attention in the areas of population. food securityg the loss of species and genetic resources, energy, industry, and human settlements - realizing that all of these are connected and cannot be treated in isolation one from another. This section contains only a few of the commission-s many recommendations. l. Pooulation and Human Resources 41. In many parts of the world. the population is growing at rates that cannot be sustained by available environmental resources. at rates that are outstripping any reasonable expectatlona of improvements in housing. health care, food security, or energy supplies. 42. The issue is not just numbers of people. but how those numbers relate to available resources. Thus the 'population problem` must be dealt with in part by efforts to eliminate mass poverty, in order to assure more equitable access to resources, and by education to improve human potential to manage those resources. 43. Urgent steps are needed to limit extreme rater of population growth. Choices made now will influence the level at which the population stabilizes next century within a range of 6 billion people. But this is not just a demographic issue; providing people with facilities and education that allow than to choose the size of their families is a way of assuring - especially for women - the basic human right of self-determination. 44. Governments that need to do so should develop lonq*term, multifaceted population policies and a campaign to pursue broad demographic qoals: to trenqthen social, cultural, and economic motivations for family planning, and to provide to all who want them the education, contraceptives, and services required. 45. Human resource development is a crucial requirement not only to build up technical Knowledge and capabilities. but also to create new values *= help individuals and nations cope with rapidly changing social, environmental, and development realities. Knowledge shared globally would assure greater mutual understanding and create greater willingness to share global resources equitably. 46. Tribal and indigenous peoples will need special attention as the forces of economic development disrupt their traditional life-styles - life-styles that can offer modern societies many lessons in the management of resources in complex forest. mountain, and dryland ecosystoms. Some are threatened with virtual extinction by insensitive development over Which they |

AJ42/4z) Hnql lnh Paqv 2H have no control. Their traditional rights should be recognized and they should be qiven a decisive voice in formulating policies about resource development in their areas. (See Chapter 4 for a wider discussion of these issues and recommendations.) 2. Food Security: Sustaining the Potential 47. Growth in world cereal production has steadily outstripped world population growth. Yet each year there are more people in the world who do not get enough food. Global agriculture has the potential to grow enough food for all, but food is often not available where it is needed. 48. Production in induetrialized countries has usually been highly subsidized and protected from international competition. These subsidies have encouraged the overuse of soil and chemicals, the | lution of both water resources and foods with these chemicals, and the degradation of the countryside. Much of this effort has produced surpluses and their associated financial burdens. And some of this surplus has been sent at concessional rates to the developing world, where it has undermined the farming policies of recipient nations. There is, however. growing awareness in some countries of the environmental and economic consequences of such paths, and the emphasis of agricultural policies is to encourage conservation. 49. Many developing countries. on the other hand, have suffered the opposite problem: farmers are not sufficiently supported. In some. improved technology allied to price incentives and government services has produced a major breakthrough in food production. But elsewhere, the food-growing small farmers have been neglected. Coping with often inadequate technology and few economic incentives, many are pushed onto marginal land: too dry, too steep. lacking in nutrients. Forests are cleared and productive drylands rendered barren. 50. Most developing nations need more effective incentive systems to encourage production, especially of food crops. In short, the `terms of trade' need to be turned in favour of the small farmer. Most induatrialized nations, on the other hand. must alter present systems in order to cut surpluses. to reduce unfair competition with nations that may have real comparative advantages, and to promote ecoloqically sound farming practices. 51. Food security requires attention to questions of distribution, since hunger often arises from lack of purchasing power rather than lack of available food. It can be furthered by land reforms, and by policies to protect vulnerable subsistence farmers. pastoraliste, and the landless - groups who by the year 2000 will include 220 million households. Their greater prosperity will depend on integrated rural development that increases work opportunities both inside and outside agriculture. (See Chapter 5 for a wider discussion of these issues and recommendations.)

^/43/az? Rrlq} {Rh Paqe 29 3. Species and Ecosxstsnsz gesourcss for Development 52. The planet's species are under stress. There is a growing scientific consensus that species are disappearing at rates never before witnessed on the planet. although there is also controversy over those rates and the risks they entail. Yet there is still time to halt this process. 53. The diversity of species is necessary for the normal functioning of ecosystons and the biorphore as a whole. The genetic material in wild species contributes billions of dollars yearly to the world economy in the form of improved crop species, now drugs and medicinss, and raw materials for industry. But utility aside, there are also moral. ethical, cultural, aesthetic, and purely scientific reasons for conserving wild beings. 54. A first priority is to establish the problem of disappearing species and threatened ecosystens on political agendas as a major economic and resource issue. 55. Governments can stem the destruction of tropical forests and other reservoirs of biological diversity while developing them economically. Reforming forest revenue systems and concession terms could raise billions of dollars of additional revenues. promote more efficient, long-term forest resource use, and curtail deforestation. 56. The network of protected areas that the world will need in the future must include much larger areas brought under some degree of protection. Therefore, the cost of conservation will rise - directly and in terms of opportunities for development foregone. But over the long torn the opportunities for development will be enhanced. International development agencies should therefore give comprehensive and systematic attention to the problems and opportunities of species conservation. 57. Governments should investigate the prospect of agreeing to a `Species Convention', similar in spirit and scope to other international conventions reflecting principles of 'universal resources'. They should also consider international financial arrangements to support the implementation of such a convention. (See Chapter 6 for a wider discussion of these issies and recommendations.) 4. Engrgy: Choices for Environment and Development 58. A safe and sustainable energy pathway is crucial to sustainable development; we have not yet found it. Rates of increase in energy use have been declining. However, the industrialization, agricultural development. and rapidly growing populations of developing nations will need much more energy. Today, the average person in an industrial market economy uses more than 80 times as much energy as someone in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus any realistic global energy scenario must provide for substantially increased primary energy use by developing countries. |

A/42/427 Hill} I l Hh Pane l() 59. To bring developing countries' energy use up to lnduatrialized country levels by the year 2025 would require increasing present global energy use by a factor of five. The planetary ecosysten could not stand this. especially it the increases were based on non-renewable rossll fuels. Threats of global warning and aclditlcatlon ot the environment most probably rule out even a doubling of energy use bared on present mixes of primary sources. 60. Any new era of economic growth must therefore be less energy intensive than growth in the past. Energy efficiency policies must be the cutting edge of national energy strategies for suatainable development, and there is nuch scope for improvement in this direction. Modern appliances can be redesigned to deliver the sane amounts ot energy-services with only zwo-thirds or even one-halt or the primary energy inputs needed to run traditional equipment. And energy efficiency solutions are often cost~eftectlve. 61. After almost four decades ot immense technological effort, nuclear energy has become widely usedg During this period. however, the nature of its costs, risks, and benefits have become more evident and the subject of sharp controversy. Different countries world-wide take up different pooitions on the use of nuclear energy. The discussion in the Connission also reflected these different views and positions. Yet all agreed that the generation of nuclear power is only justifiable if there are solid aolutlona to the unsolved problems to which At gives rise. The highest priority should be accorded to research and development on anvironnentally sound and ecologlcally viable alternatives, as well as on means of increasing the safety of nuclear energy. 62. Energy efficiency can only buy time tor the world to develop 'low-energy paths` based on renewable sources. which should torn the foundation of the global energy structure during the 2lst Century. Most ot these sources are currently problematic. but given innovative development. they could supply the sane amount ot primary energy the planet now consumes. However, achieving these use levels will require a programme of coordinated research. development, and demonstration projects commanding rnndlnq necessary to ensure the rapid development of renewal e energy. Developing countries will require assistance to change their energy use patterns in this direction. 63. Millions of people in the developing world are short of tuelwood. the main domestic energy of half of humanity, and their numbers are qrowlnq. The wood-poor nations must organize their agricultural sectors to produce large amounts of wood and other plant fuels. 64. The substantial changes required in the present qlobal energy nlx will not be achieved by market pressures alone, given the dominant role of governments as producers ot energy and their importance as consumers. It the recent momentum behind annual gains in energy efficiency is to be maintained and extended, governments need to make it an explicit goal of their policies for energy pricing to consuners. Prices needed to encourage the adoption ot energy-saving measures may be achieved through several means. Although the Commission expresses no preference. `conservation pricing' requires that governments take a lonq~term

A/42/427 English Paqe 3} view in weighing the costs and benefits of the various measures. Given the importance of oil prices on international energy policy. new mechaniems for encouraging dialogue between coneumers and producers should be explored. 65. A safe, environnentally sound, and economically viable energy pathway that will sustain human progress into the distant future ie clearly imperative. It is also possible. But it will require new dimensions of political will and institutional cooperation to achieve it. (See Chapter 7 for a wider discussion of these issues and recommendations.) 5. Industry: Producing More with Lees 66. The world manufactures eeven times more goods today than it did as recently as 1950. Given population growth rates. a five~ to tenfold increase in manufacturing output will be needed just to raise developing world consumption of manufactured qoode to industrialized world levels by the time population growth rates level off next century. 67. Experience in the industrialized nations has proved that anti-pollution technology has been coetneffective in terms of health. property, and environmental damage avoided. and that it has made many industries more profitable by making them more resource-efficient. While economic growth has continued, the consumption of raw materials has held steady or even declined, and new technologies offer further efficiencies. 68. Nations have to bear the costs of any inappropriate industrialization. and many developing countries are realizing that they have neither the resources nor ~ given rapid technological change - the time to damage their environments now and clean up later. But they also need assistance and information from industrialized nations to make the beet use of technology. Tranenational corporatione have a special responsibility to smooth the path of industrialization in the nations in which they operate. 69. Emerging technologies offer the promise of higher productivity, increased efficiency. and decreased pollution, but many bring risks of new toxic chemicals and wastes and of major accidente of a type and scale beyond present coping mechaniems. There is an urgent need for tighter controls over the export of hazardous industrial and agricultural chemicals. Present controls over the dumping of hazardous waetee should be tightened. 70. Many essential human needs can be met only through qoode and services provided by industry, and the shift to euetainable development must be powered by a continuing flow of wealth from industry. (See Chapter 8 for a wider discussion of these issues and recommendations.) 6. The Urban Challenge 71. By the turn of the century, almost half of humanity will llve in cities; the world of the Zlst century will be a largely |

A/42/427 l-lnql ish Paqo 12 urban world. Over only 65 years. the developing world`e urban population hae increased tenfold. from around 100 million in 1920 to 1 billion today. In 1940. one person in 100 lived in a city of 1 million or more inhabitante; by 1980, one in 10 lived ir euch a city. Between 1915 and the year 2000. Third World cities could grow by another three-quarters of a billion people. This euggeate that the developing world must. over the next few years, increase by 65 per cent ite capacity to produce and manage its urban infrastructure. services. and shelter merely to maintain today's often extremely inadequate conditions. 72. Few city governments in the developing world have the power. resources. and trained personnel to provide their rapidly growing populations with the land, services, and facilities needed for an adequate human life: clean water. sanitation. schools, and transport. The result ie mushrooming illegal eettlemente with primitive facilities, increased overcrowding. and raapant disease linked to an unhealthy environment. Many cities in industrial countries also face problems | deteriorating infrastructure, environmental degradation, inner-city decay, and nelghbourhood collapse. But with the means and reaourcee to tackle this decline, the ieeue for most induetrial countries in ultimately one of political and social choice. Developing countriee are not in the eame situation. They have a major urban criala on their hands. 73. Governments will need to develop explicit settlenents strategies to guide the proceee ot urbanization. taking the preeeure oft the largest urban centres and building up enaller towne and cities. more closely integrating then with their rural hinterlanda. This will mean examining and changing other policies - taxation, food pricing, transportation. health, industrialization - that work against the qoale of eettlemente strategies. 74. Good city management requires decentralization M of funds, political power, and personnel B to local authorities. which are beet placed to appreciate and manage local needs. But the sustainable development of cities will depend on closer work with the majorities of urban poor who are the true city builders, tapping the ekille. energies and resources of neiqhbdurhood groups and those in the 'informal sector'. Much can be achieved by 'site and service` schemes that provide households with baeic services and help them to get on with building sounder houses around these. (See Chapter 9 for a wider discussion of these issues and recommendations )

[edit] III. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND INSTITUTIONAL REFORM

1. The Role of the International ggonomv 75. Two conditions must be satisfied before international economic exchanges can become beneficial for all involved. The eustainability of ecoeysteme on which the global economy depends must be guaranteed. And the economic partners must be satisfied

A/4l/42/ linq I l rxh l'dqu { { that the baaia of exchange is equitable. For many developing countries, neither condition la mat. 76. Growth in many developing countrioa in being atlfled by doproaaod commodity prlcaa, protactlonium. intolerable dtbt burdens. and declining flows of development finance. If llvlnq standards are to grow so as to alleviate poverty. those trends must be rovaraod. 77. A particular responsibility falls to the World Bank and the International Development Association as the main condult for nultilatoral finance to developing countries. In the context of consistently increased financial flows. the World Bank can support environmontally aound projects and policies. In financing structural adjustment, the International Monetary Fund should support wider and longer torn development objectives than at present: growth, social qoala. and environmental impacts. 78. The present level of debt service of many countries, aapecially in Africa and Latin America. is not consistent with auatainablo development. Dabtora are being requlrad to use trade surpluses to service debta, and are drawing heavily on ncn-renowable resources to do so. Urgent action is necessary to alleviate debt burdens in waya that represent a fairer anarlnq between both debtors and lenders of the responsibilities and burdens. 79. Current arrangements for commodities could be significantly improved: more compensatory financing to offset economic shocks would encourage producers to take a long-torn view, and not to overproduca commodities; and more assistance could be qivon {rom diversification progrannea. Commodity specific arrangements can build on the model of the International Tropical Timber Agreement, one of the few that specifically includes ecoloqlcal concerned 80. Multinational companies can play an important role in sustainable development. especially as developing countries come to rely more on foreign equity capital. But if those companies are to have a positive influence on development, the negotiating capacity of developing countries vis a vls tranenationals must be strengthened so they can secure terms which respect their environmental concerns. 81. However, these specific measures must be located in a wider context of effective cooperation to produce an international economic system geared to growth and the elimination of world poverty. (See Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion of issues and recommendations on the international economy.) Zttllamlqdiwn g_t.bs_gmImur 82. Traditional forms of national sover=iqnty raise particular problems in managing the 'global commons' and their shared ocosyetems - the oceans, outer space, and Antarctica. Some progress has been made in all three areas; much remalnn to be done.

A mhqxx i-In.'! x:;h Pa`}!` {4 83. The UN Conference on the Law of the Sea was the most ambitious attempt ever to provide an internationally agreed regime for the management of the oceans. All nations should ratify the Law of the Sea Treaty as soon as possible. Fieheries aqreoments ohould be strengthened to prevent current overoxploitetion. as should conventions to control and regulate the dumping of hazardous wastes at sea. 84. There are growing concerns about the management of orbital space, centering on using satellite technology for monitoring planetary systems; on making the most effective use of the limited capacities of qeorvnchronous orbit fot communications satellites; and on limiting space debris. The orbitxnq and testing of weaponu in space would greatly increase this detrgs. The international community should seek to design and implement a space regime to ensure that space remains a peaceful environment for the benefit of all. 85. Antarctica is managed under the L959 Antarctica Treaty. However. many nations outside of that pact view the Treaty System as too limited. both in participation and in the scope of its conservation measures. The Conmission*e recommendations deal with the safeguarding of present achievemente; the incorporation of any ninerals development into a management regime: and various options for the future. (See Chapter 10 for more discussion an issues and recommendations on the management of the commons.) 3. Peace, Securitx, Developgent*|and|the|gnvironment 86. Among the danqers facing the environment. the possibility of nucleor war is undoubtedly the gravest. Certain aspects of the issues of peace and stcurity hear directly upon the concept of sustainable development. The whole notion of security as traditionally understood in terms of political and military threats to national sovereiqnty - ~uut be expanded to include the growing impacts of environmental stress - locally, nationally. regionally. and globally. There are no military sylutione to 'environmental insecurity`. 87. Governments and international aqencies should assess the cost effectiveness, in texas of achieving security, of money spent on aruanents compared with money opent on reducing poverty or restoring a ravaged environment. 88. But the qreatest need is to achieve improved relations among those major ptwere capable of deploying weapons of mjss destruction. This is needed to achieve agreement on tighter control over the proliferation and testing of various types of weapons of mass destruction | nuclear and non nuclear including those that have environmental implications. (See Chapter it for more discussion of issues and reeommendations on the links between peace, security, development, and the environment.) At in =.. t .1 L utmoetmgttqvtsget . gm me 89. The Report that follows contains throughout (and especiaily in Chapter 12), many specific recommendations for institutional

A/42/427 Hnqlinh Paqo 35 and legal change. These cannot be adequately summarized here. However. the Commiusion's main proposals are embodied in six priority areas. 4.1 Getting at the Sources 90. Governments must beqin now to make the key national, economic, and eectoral agencies directly responsible and accountable for ensuring that their policies. proqrammes. and budgets support development that is economically and ecoloqically sustainable. 91. By the same token. the various regional organizations need to do more to integrate environment fully in their goals and activities. Now regional arrangements will especially be needed among developing countries to deal with transboundary environmental issues. 92. All major international bodies and dqencie~ should ensure that their programnee encourage and support uost tnable development. and they should greatly improve thei coordination and cooperation. The 5ecretary-Gcnera1 of the United Nations organization should provide a high level centre t leadership for the UN system to assess. advise, assist, and rn` | on progress made towards this goal. 4.2 Qegiing|with|the gffecto 93. Government` should alzo reinforce the soles and capacities of environmental protection an? resource management agencies. This is needed in uany industrialized countries, but most urgently in developing countries. which will need assistance in strengthening their institutions. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) should be strengthened as the principal source on environmental data, assessment, and reporting and as the principal advocate and aoent for change and international cooperation on critical e.vironment and natural resource protection issues. !#!mAsseqging|g1obai Riskg 94. The capacity to identify, assess, and report on risks of irreversible damage to natural systems and threats to the survival, security, and well being of the world community must be rapidly reinforced and ertendea. Governments. individually and collectively, have the principal responsibility to do this. UNEP'u Earthwatch programme shou'd be the centre of itedership in the UN system on risk assesoront, 95. However, given the politically sensitive nature ot many of the most critical risks. there is also a need for an independent but conp1amenLary capacity to assess and report on critical global risks. ` now international programme for cooperation among largely non-governmental organizations. scientific bodies, and industry groups should therefore be established for this purpose.

| l-lnql lnh PA`}" H1 s.! Making lnfogmed Choices 96. Making the difficult choices involved in achieving euetainable development will depend on the widespread support and involvement of an informed public and of NGOS. the scientific community, and industry. Their rights, rolee and participation in development planning. decision-making, and project implementation should be expanded. 4.2 Egoyiding the Legal Means 97. National and international law is being rapidly outdietanced by the accelerating pace and expanding scale of impacts on the ecoloqical basis of development. Governments now need to fill major gape in existing national and international law related to the environment, to find ways to recognize and protect the rights of present and future generations to an environment adequate for their health and well-being, to prepare under UN auspices a universal Declaration on environmental protection and euetainable development and a subsequent Convention, and to strengthen procedures for avoiding or resolving disputes on environment and resource management ieeuea. 4,g lnxeeting in gut Future 98. Over the past decade, the overall coet~effectiveness of investment: in halting pollution has been demonstrated. The escalating economic and ecoloqical damage costs of not investing in environmental protection and improvement have also been repeatedly demonstrated - often in grim tolls of flood and (amino. But there are large financial inplicatione: for renewable energy development, pollut on control, and achieving leee reoource~inteneive forme of agriculture. 99. Multilateral financial institutions have a crucial role to play. The World Bank ie presently reorientinq its proqrammes towarde greater environmental concerns. This should be accompanied by a fundamental commitment to eustainable development by the Bank. It is also essential that tho Regional Development Banks and the International Monetary Fund incorporate similar objectives in their policies and proqrammes. A now priority and focus is also needed in bilateral aid agencies. 100. Given the limitations on increasing present flows ot international aid, proposals for securing additional revenue from the use of international commons and natural resources should now be seriously considered by qovernnento. IV. A CALL FOR|AgIlgMu lOl. Over the course of this century, the relationship between the human world and the planet that sustains it has undergone a profound change.

A/42/427 !':n(l I| | 102. When the centtry began. neither human numbers nor technology had the power radically to alter planetary aystena. As the century closes, not only do vastly increased human numbers and their activities have that power, but major. unintended changes are occurring in the atmosphere, in oolle. in waters. among plants and aninalo, and in the relationship: among all of those. The rate of change is outstripping the ability of scientific disciplines and our current capabilities to aaaeaa and advise. It la frustrating the attempts of political and economic institutions, which evolved in a different, more fragmented world, to adapt and cope. It deeply worries many people who are seeking ways to place those concerns on the political agendas. 103. The onuo lxoo with no one group of nations. Developing countries face the obvious life-threatening challenges of denertificatlon. deforeotation, and pollution, and endure most of the poverty associated with environmental degradation. The entire human family of nations would suffer from the disappearance of rain foreata in the troplca. the looa of plant and animal species, and changes in rainfall patterns. Industrial nations tace the life-threatening challenges of toxic chemioala. toxlc wastes, and acidlflcatlon. All nations may suffer t a the releases by industriallzed countries of carbon dioxide and of gases that react with the ozone layer, and from any future war fought with the nuclear arsenals controlled by those nations. All nations will have a role to play in changing trends, and in righting an international economic system that increases rather than decreases inequality, that increases rather than decreases numbers of poor and hungry. 104. The ne; tow decadoe are crucial. The time has come to break out of past patterns. Attempts to maintain social and ecoloqical stability through old approaches to development and environmental protection will increase instability. Security must be sought through change. The Commission has noted a number of actions that must be taken to reduce risks to survival and to put future development on paths that are auotalnablo. Yet we are aware that such a reoriontation on a continuing basin is simply beyond the roach of present decision-making structures and institutional arrangements, both national and international. 105. This Commission has been careful to base our recommendations on the realities of present institutions, on what can and must be accomplished today. But to keep options open for future generations, the present generation must begin now. and begin together. 106. To achieve the neodod changes, we believe that an active follow-up of this report la imperative. It is with this in mind that we call for the UN General Assembly, upon due consideration. to tranoform this report into a UN Programme on Sustainable Development. Special follow-up conferencee could be initiated at the regional level. Within an appropriate period after the presentation or this report to the General Assembly. an international conference could be convened to review progress made. and to promote follow up arrangements that will be needed to not benchmarks and to maintain human progress. |

A/42/427 l-lnql ish Paqo i8 107. Flret and foremost. this Comnlsilon has been concerned with people - of all countries and all walks of life. And it la to people that we aodteee out report. The changes In human attitude` that we call tot depend on a vaet campaign of education, debate, and public pattlclpatlon. Tnie campaign must etart now If euetalnable human progress ie to be achieved. 108. The me-beta of the Wotld Commlaalon on Environment and Development came from 2l very different nations. In our dlecueelona, we disagreed often on detallo and priorities. But deeplte our widely differing backgtounde and varying national and international teuponeibllltiee. we were able to agree to the llnee along which change must be drawn. 109. We are unanlaoue in out conviction that the eecurlty. well-being, and very eurvlval of the planet depend on such change!. now.

A/42/427 | iszh I*..l=lr- $9

[edit] CHAPTER 1. A THREATHENED FUTURE

1. The Earth is one but the world is not. We all depend on one biosphere for sustaining our lives. Yet each community, each country, strives for survival and prosperity with little regard for its impact on others. Some consume the Earth'e resources at a rate that would leave little for future generations. Others, many more in number, consume far too little and live with the prospect of hunger. oqualor. disease. and early death. 2. Yet progress has been made. Throughout much or the world. children born today can expect to live longer and be better educated than their patents. In many parts. the newMborn can also expect to attain a higher standard of living in a wider sense. Such progress provides hope as we contemplate the improvements still needed, and also as we face our failures to make this Earth a safer and sounder home for us and for those who are to come. 3. The failuree that we need to correct arise both from poverty and from the short-sighted way in which we have often pursued prosperity. Many parts of the world are caught in a vicious downwards spiral: Poor people are forced to overuse environmental resources to survive from day to day, and their impoverishment of their environment further inpoverishes them. making their survival ever more difficult and uncertain. The prosperity attained in some parts or the world is often precarious, as it has been secured through farming, forestry, and industrial practices that bring profit and progress only over the short tern. 4. Societies have faced such pressures in the past and, as many desolate ruins remind us. sometimes succumbed to them. But generally these pressures were local. Today the scale of ot: interventionn in nature is increasing an` the physical etfevxe ot our decisions spill across national frontiers. The growth in economic interaction between nations amplifies the wider consequences of national decisions. Economics and ecology bind ul in ever-tightening networks. Today, many reqions face risks of irreversible damage to the human environment that threaten the basis for human progress. 5. These deepening interconnections are the central justification for the establishment of this Commission. We travelled the world for nearly three years, listening. At special public hearings organized by the Commission. we heard from government leaders, scientists, and experts. from citizeno' groups concerned about a wide range of environment and development issues. and from thousands of individuals - tarmers,

A/42/427 {`IN}! lzih lhtm- 40 shanty-town residents, young people. industrialiats, and indigenous and tribal peoples. 6. We found everywhere deep public concern for the environment, concern that has led not just to protests but often to changed benaviour. The challenge is to ensure that these now values are more adequately reflected in the principles and operations of political and economic structures. 7. We also found grounds for hope: that people can cooperate to build a future that is more prosperous. more just, and more secure; that a new era of economic growth can be attained, one based on policies that sustain and expand the Earth`s resource base; and that the progress that some have known over the last century can be experienced by all in the years ahead. But for this to happen. we must understand better the aynptons of stress that confront us, we must identify the causes. and we must design new approaches to managing environmental resources and to sustaining human development. I. SYMPTOMS AND CAUSES 8. Environmental stress has often been seen as the result of the growing demand on scarce resources and the pollution generated by the rising living standards of the relatively affluent. But poverty itself pollutes the environment, creating environmental stress in a different way. Those who are poor and hungry will often destroy their immediate environment in order to survive: They will cut down forests; their liveetock will overgraze qrasalanda; they will overuse marginal land; and in growing numbers they will crowd into congested cities. The cumulative effect of these changes is so tar-reaching as to make poverty itself a major global scourge. 9. On the other hand, where economic growth has led to improvements in living standards, it has sometimes been achieved in ways that are globally damaging in the longer term. Much of the improvement in the past has been based on the use of increasing amounts of raw materials, energy, chemicals. and syntwetics and on the creation of pollution that is not adequately accounted for in figuring the costs of production processes. These trends have had unforeseen effects on the environment. Thus today's environmental challenges arise both from the lack of development and from the unintended consequences of some forms of economic growth. l;|Povertx lO. There are more hungry people in the world today than over before in human history, and their numbers are growing. In 1980, there were 340 million people in el developing countries not getting enough caloriea to prevent stunted qrowth and serious health risks. This total was very slightly below the flqure for 1970 in terms of share of the world population, but in terms of sheer numbers, it represented a 14 per cent increase. The World Bank predicts that these numbers are likely to qo on glowing 1/

A/42/427 Hnql inh I} inn 4Y I think this Commission should qive attention on how to look into the question of more participation for those people who are the object of development. Their basic needs include the right to preserve their cultural identity, and their right not to be alienated from their own society, and their own community. So the point I want to make is that we cannot discuss environment or development without discussing political development. And you cannot eradicate poverty, at least not only by redistributing wealth or income, but there must be more redistribution of power. Aristides Katoppo Publisher WCED Public Hearing Jakarta, 26 March 1985 | ll. The number of people living in slums and shanty towns is rising. not falling. A growing number lack access to clean water and sanitation and hence are prey to the diseases that arise from this lack. There is some progress, impressive in places. But, on balance. poverty persists and its victims multiply. 12. The pressure of poverty has to be seen in a broader context. At the international level there are large differences in per capita income, which ranged in 1984 from $190 in lowkincome countries (other than China and india) to $11,430 in the `ndustrial market economies. (See Table lhl.) 13. Su h inequalities represent great differences not merely in the quality of life today, but also in the capacity of societies to improve their quality of life in the future. Most of the world's poorest countries depend for increasing export earnings on tropical agricultural products that are vulnerable to fluctuating or declining terms of trade. Expansion can often only be achieved at the price of ecoloqical stress. Yet diversification in ways that will alleviate both poverty and ecological stress is hampered by disadvantaqeous terms of technology transfer, by protectionism, and by declining financial flows to those countries that most need international finance 2/ 14. Within countries. poverty has been exacerbated by the unequal distribution of land and other assets. The rapid rise in population has compromised the ability to raise living standards. These factors, combined with qrowinq demands for the commercial use of good land, often to grow crops for export , have pushed many subsistence farmers onto poor land and roboed them of any hope of participating in their nations` economic lives. The same forces have meant that traditional shifting cultivators, who once cut forests, grew crops, and then gave the forest time to recover. now have neither land enough nor time to let forests re-establish. So forests are being destroyed, often only to create poor farmland that cannot support thore who till it. Extending cultivation onto steep slopes is increasing soil erosion in many hilly sections of both developing and developed

A/42/427 Hnql ish l`.lqP 42 mmarn Neelauee Ihe see he ceelta I by leeeee et Gee-ulee A"!". `ill enmusne he eeetu et ee: eeetta Ceeeutee Peealaeaea- 1 X. Llehee | | eelkaea) kemedeeeae Ieeeeetae teen. Clue. lean) el! He e.' (late ad Idle )..T7I IN I.! hem! Iaedle-La*e@ I.-ga-ie, ON `Ne l.@ One: `Hale-leeeee leeeeuee an l..Il@ I.! eA.e.Laeee= os: a=ee:==== as ra.ase s.: leeeeulea manes leeeeeaee la.! u.eae a.e | tease hue Ieea. | (lee teen "{ere nations. In many river valleye. areae chronically liable to floode are now farmed. 15. Theee preeauree are reflected in the rising incidence of dieaetere. During the l970l. mix timee aa many people died troe `natural dieaetere` each year ae in the 1960I, and twice ae many suffered troe euch dieaetere. Drouqhte and tloode, dieaetere among whoee caueee are widespread deforeetation and overcultivation, increaeed most in terme of number! affected. There were 18.5 million people affected by drought' annually in the 1960e, but 24.4 million in the 1970e; 5.2 million people were vgctine of floode yearly in the 1960e, compared with 15.4 million in the l97Oe.3/ The reeulte are not in for the 19BOe, but this disaster-prone decade eeeee to be carrying forward the trend, with drouqhte in Africa, India, and Latin America. and floods throughout Asia. parts of Africa. and the Andoan region of Latin America. 16. Such disasters claim most of their victims among the impoverished in poor nations, where subsistence taruere must make their land more liable to drouqhts and tloods by clearing marginal areas, and where the poor make themselves more vulnerable to all disaeters by living on steep slopes and unprotected shoree - the only lands left for their shanties. Lacking food and foreign exchange reserves, their economically ' vulnerable governments are ill equipped to cope with euch catastrophes. 17. The links between environmental stress and developmental disaster are most evident in eub-Saharan Africa. Per capita food production. declining since the l960s, plummeted during the drought of the 1980e. and at the height of the food emergency some 35 million people were exponed to risk. Human overuse of land and prolonged drouqht threaten to turn the qraeulande of Afrxca~s Sahel region into desert 4/ No other region more tragically suffers the vxcious cycle of poverty leading to

A/42/427 Hnql lsh Paqo 4 3 If people destroy vegetation in order to get land, food, fodder, fuel, or timber. the soil is no longer protected. Rain creates surface runoff, and the soil arodes. When the soil is gone. no water is retained and the land can no longer produce enough food, fodder, fuel, or timber. so people need to turn to new land and start the process all over again. All major disaster problems in the Third World are essentially unsolved development problems. Disaster prevention in thus primarily an aspect of development, and this must be a development that takes place within the sustainable limits. Odd Grann Secretary General, Norueqian Red Cross WCED Public Hearing Oslo, 24-25 June 1985 environmental degradation, which loads in turn to even greater poverty. 2. Growth 18. In some parts of the world, particularly since the mid-1950e, growth and development have vastly improved living standards and the quality of life. Many of the products and technologies that have gone into this improvement are raw material- and energy-intensive and entail a substantial amount ot pollution. The consequent impact on the environment is greater than over before in human history. 19. Over the past century. the use of fossil fuels has grown nearly thirtyfold, and industrial production has increased more than fiftyfold. The bulk of this increase, about three-quarters in the case of fossil fuels and a little over four-fifths in the case of industrial production. has taken place since 1950. The annual increase in industrial production today is perhaps as large as the total production in Europe around the end of the 19308.k/ Into every year we now squeeze the decades of industr al growth - and environmental disruption 4 that formed the basls of the pre war European economy. 20. Envi.onmental stresses also arise from more traditional forms of production. More land has been cleared for settled cultivation in the past 100 years than in all the previous centuries of human existence. lnterventions in the water cycles have increased greatly. Massive dame, most of them built after 1950, impound a larqe proportion of the river flow. In Europe and Asia, water use has reached lO per cent of the annual run off, a figure that is expected to rise to 20-25 per cent by the end of the century 6/ 21. The impact of growth and risanq income levels can be seen in the distribution of world consumption of a va iety of resource intensive producps. The more affluent lndustrialized countripn use most of the world's metals and fossil fuels. Even

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rn Capita Ierli CON!` OHM 'er onto`!" tau-apt!.` caummtha gene-'th. Caplu ("`Ii.!) `,@l'l@l!) ram caluln luliper `my II .l.IIl It I.}!' 't.!.!. 'ill'.! ..1 Jl I, II II "I `II/'I! "' IJ II' @7 @9 'ape: lglpu you U In H I Ill.} I,),.! 'O.!' T. `I. I! II Other Iotah I'/'er you N N H 1 he-arch. Immrh in-/'er you @0 I.! ID @.l I.-ne: Ucth utlutu tau` on unary-X-va! `an has YAO. IN ltatluhal 0(Hu. OOCIAD. .*4 la-rh.' lan! luulatlu. in the case of food products a sharp difference exists. particularly in the products that are more resource-intensive. (See Table 1-2.) 22. In recent years, industrial countries have been able to achieve economic growth using less energy and raw materialt per unit of output. This. along with the efforts to reduce the omission of pollutants. will help to contain the pressure on the bioephere. But with the increase in population and the rise in incomes, per capita consumption of energy and materials will go up in the developing countries, as it has to it essential needs are to be net. Greater attention to resource efficiency can moderate the increase, but, on balance, environmental problems linked to resource use will intensify in global terms. 3 :Wgar.ti.xe.! 23. The scale and complexity of our reqtxrements for natural resources have increased greatly with the rising levels of population and production. Nature is bountiful, but it is also fragile and finely balanced. There are thresholde that cannot be crossed without endangering the basic integrity of the system. Today we are close to many of these thresholdsz we nuct be ever mindful of the risk of endangering the survival of life on Earth. Moreover, the speed with which changes in resource use are taking place gives little time In which to anticipate and prevent unexpected effects. 24. The 'greenhouse effect`. one such threat to life evpport systems. springs directly from increased resource use. The burning of fossil fuels and the cutting and burning of folests release carbon dioxide (CO!). The accumulation in the

A/42/427 Hnql lnh Pnqu 4*) The remarkable achievements of the celebrated Industrial *_W Revolution are now beginning seriously to be questioned principally because the environment was not considered at the 1 time. It was felt that the sky was so vast and clear nothing could ever change its colour, our rivers so big and their water so plentiful that no amount of human activity could over change their quality. and there were trees and natural forests so plentiful that we will never finish them. After all, they qrow : again. ` Today we should Know better. The alarming rate at which ) the Earth`s surface is being denuded of its natural vegetative cover seems to indicate that the world may soon become devoid . of trees through clearing for human developments. 1 Hon. Victoria Chltepo | Minister of Natural Resources ` and Tourism, Government of Zimbabwe WCED Opening Ceremony Harare, 18 Sept 1986 atmosphere ff CO2 and certain other gases traps solar radiation near the Edrth's surface, causing global warmlnn. This could cause sea level rises over the next 45 years large enough to lnundate many low lying coastal cities and river deltas. It could also drastically upset national and International agricultural production and trade systems 7/ 25. Another threat arises from the depletion of the atmospheric ozone layer by gases released during the production of foam and the use of rofrlqeronts and aerosols. A substantial loss of such ozone could have catastrophic effects on human and livestock health and on some life forms at the base of the marine food chain. The 1986 discovery of a hole in the ozone layer above the Antarctic suggests the possibility of a more rapid depletion than previously suspected 8/ 26. A variety of air pollutants are killing trees and lakes and damaging buildings and cultural treasures, close to and sometimes thousands of miles from points of emisslon. The acidlflcation of the environment threatens large areas of Europe and North America. Central Europe is currently receiving more than one qrammo of sulphur on every square metre of qround each year 9/ The loss of forests could bring in its wake disastrous erosion. mlltatlon, floods. and local climatic change. Air pollution damage is also becoming evident in some newly lnduotriallzed countries. 27. In many cases the practices used at present to dispose of toxlc wastes, much as those from the chemical industries. involve unacceptable risks. Radioactive wastes from the nuclear industry remain hazardous for centuries. Many who bear these risks do not benefit in any why from the activities that produce the wastes. |

A/42/427 English Page 46 28. Desertification - the process whereby productive arid and semi-arid land is rendered economically unproductive ~ and large~sca1e deforestation are other examples of major threats to the integrity of regional ecosystems. Deaertifioation involves complex interactions between humans. land, and climate. The pressures of subsistence food production. commercial crops. and meat production in arid and semi-arid areas all contribute to this process. 29. Each year another 6 million nectares are degraded to desert-like conditions.1o/ Over three decades, this would amount to an area roughly as large as Saudi Arabia. More than 11 million hectares of tropical forests are destroyed per year and this. over 30 years. would amount to an area about the size of India 11/ Apart from the direct and often dramatic impacts within the immediate area. nearby regione are affected by the spreading of sands or by changes in water regimea and increased risks of soil erosion and ailtation. 30. The loss of forests and other wild lands extinguishes species of plants and aninals and drastically reduces the genetic diversity of the world's ecosystems. This process robs present and future generations of genetic material with which to improve crop varieties. to make them less vulnerable to weather stress. pest attacks. and disease. The loss of species and subspecies. many as yet unstudied by science. deprives us of important potential sources of medicines and industrial chemicals. It removes forever creatures of beauty and parts of our cultural heritage; it diminishes the biospnere. 31. Many of the risks stemming from our productive activity and the technologies we use cross national boundaries; many are global. Though the activities that give risv to these dangers tend to be concentrated in a few countries. the risks are snared by alli rich and poor, those who benefit from then and those who do not. Most who snare in the risks have little influence on the decision processes that regulate these activities. 32. Little tive is available for corrective action. In some cases we may already be close to transgressing critical tnresholds. While scientists continue to research and debate causes and effects. in many cases we already know enough to warrant action. This is true locally and regionally in the cases of such threats as desertification, deforestation, toxic wastes, and acidification; it is true globally for such threats as climate change. ozone depletion. and species loss. The risks increase faster than do our abilities to manage them. 33. Perhaps the greatest threat to the Eartn's environment, to sustainable human progress. and indeed to survival is the possibility of nuclear war. increased daily by the continuing arms race and its spread to outer space. The search for a more viable future can only be meaningful in the context of a more vigorous effort to renounce and eliminate the development of means of annihilation. /.H

A/42/427 Enqllsh Paqe 4*/ L_iL..;he g9.nemls_g_tla.la 34 The environmental difficulties ttdt confront us are not new. but on I recently have we begun to understand their complexity. Previously our main concerns centred on the effects of development on the environment. Today, we need to be equally concerned about the waye in which environmental degradation can dampen or reverse economic development. In one area after another. environmental degradation is erodlnq the potential for development. This basic connection was brought into sharp focus by the environment and development crises of the l980s. 3b. The elowdown in the momentum of economic expansion and the etaqnatlon in world trade in the 19BOs challenged all nations' abilities to react and adjust. Developinj countries that rely on the export of primary products have been hit particularly hard by falling commodity prices. Between 1980 and 1984. developing countries lost about $55 billion In export earninge because of the fall in commodity prices, a blow felt most keenly in Latin America and Africa 12/ 36. As a consequence of this period of slow growth in the world economy - together with rising debt service obliqatione and a decline in the infloj of finance - many developing countries have faced severe economic crieee. Over half of all developing countries actually experienced declining per taplta GDP in the years 1982 85 and per taplta GDP has fallen. for developing countries as a whole. by around 10 per cent in the l960s. (See Table 1-3.) Table 1-3 Annual Rate of Increase of Gross Domestic Product in Developing Countries. 1976-85 Indicator 197o 60 1981 1962 1983 1984 1985 (per cent) Groae Domestic hag!qt~__-MM a All Developing I Countries 4.q l.3 o.n o.H x.]  ;.H : Developlnq Countries Excluding Laxqe Countries 4.b 1.0 0.6 all 1.5 1.4 | All Developing t Countries 2.4 1.0 42.l 1.M 0.2 ~O.2 Developing Countries Excluding Larqe Count'iee 1.9 1.5 M3.l H2.4 -l.o l.l Source: Department of International Economic and Social At t airs. mLlnawQLvngrlenmVep_t.Ll.nM}ss.s,|^~R, la egg tmg_gMil,gb.al gall? gglrylewg |^~Romg tRgg.9.maendul9ep_lm9f.4.VtVhe. siqmmitts-g rn ggxelopw nt|Blann1nq (New Yorkt UN. 19Ub) a.rm o|^~R, | | | | | | | | | | | | | | J |

A/42/427 I-Inql luh Pdqq` 4H 37. The heaviest burden in international economic adjustment has been carried by the world's poorest people. The consequence has been a considerable increase in human distress and the overexploitation of land and natural resources to on.ure survival in the short term. A . Many international economic problems remain unresolved: Developing country indebtedness remains serious; commodity and energy markets are highly unstable; financial flows to developinw countries are seriously deficient; protectionism and trade wars are a serious threat. Yet at a time when multilateral institutions. and rules. are more than ever necossary, they have been devalued. And the notion of an international responsibility for development has virtually disappeared. The trend is towards a decline in multilateralism and an assertion of national dominance. Il. NgW|APEROACHEg TO EH!lBONMgNI ANQ DE!QbOPgguI 39 Human progress has always depenied on our technical ingenuity and a capacity for cooperative action. These qualities have often bwen used constructively to achieve development and environmental progress: in air and water pollution control, for example, and in increasing the efficiency of material and energy use. Many countries have increased food production and reduced population growth rates. Some technological advances, particularly in medicine, have been widely shared. 4C. But this is not enough. Failures to manage the environment and to sustain development threaten to ov rwhelm all countries. Environment and development are not separate challenges; they are inexorably linked. Development cannot subsist upon a deteriorating environmental resource base; the environment cannot be protected when growth leaves out of account the costs of environmental destruction. These problems cannot be treated separately by fragmented institutions and policies. They are linked in a complex system of cause and effect. 4}. First, environmental stresses are linked one to anothvr. For example, deforestation, by increasing run oft, accelerates soil exosion and siltatlon