412 NORTH-WEST AFRICA. the natives that the conquest of Fez and its towers continues to be the goal of their northern neighbours. The empire is even already invaded by Spain, which possesses strongholds on the seaboard and has secured a finn footing at the Mediterranean entrance of the Strait. On the Algerian side the frontier is well defined, at least along its northern section, nor -does France hold any enclare within the Marocco borders. But this conventional line, coinciding with no natural, strategic, or ethnical limits, has already been repeatedly violated by French detachments in pursuit of hostile tribes, such as the Amurs, Beni-Iznatens, or Sidi-Sheikhs, England also has in her turn played the part of a protecting power, often subsidising the imperial Government, and in 1860 even preventing the victorious Spanish army from advancing against Tangier. The very treaties of commerce have been dictated, so to say, clause by clause, and the Cape Spartel lighthouse, at the threshold of the empire, has been built by the foreigner and is maintained by the European consuls. The Sultan is well aware that he has no longer the strength to withstand the will of Europe, and that the best security for the permanence of his rule lies in the mutual rivalries of the Great Powers. The consular jurisdiction is at times extended to the Mohammedans themselves. Natives in litigation with a European must plead before the protecting consul, and abide by his decision. On the other hand, foreigners under like circum- stances appeal to the cadi ; but if dissatisfied with his judgment, they may bring their suit before the emperor, that is, indirectly before their respective ambassadors. But the local administration of justice is a much more summary affair. The sentences, or rather judicial acts of vengeance, are incredibly barbarous and cruel. If the penalty of death is rarely inflicted, the victims only suffer all the more, being reserved for a slow physical agony. In the State prisons they are often confined with the neck passed through an iron collar obliging them to maintain a standing position day and night. Many of these prisons are foul dens where they are forgotten and left to perish of hunger. Thieves have sometimes their hands closed for ever, the nails penetrating the live flesh through slits made with a knife, and a fresh skin gradually spreading until the hand grows to a stump. More ordinary punishments are the bastinado and fines, always imposed by the cadi, from whom there is no appeal. The supreme judge of the empire is the Cadi of Fez, generally a member of the imperial family appointed by the Sultan. , He selects the district cadis, who in their turn nominate those of the various tribes or communes, without reference to their superiors. Army. The army is recruited somewhat at haphazard. In principle, each tribe forming the makhzen or military section of the population is bound to supply one man for every hearth. But in practice the kaids called on to furnish troops seize all within their reach, sending them in chains to the ranks, where they remain for life unless redeemed by a substitute. The forces thus raised form a total of 25,000 men, of whom 7,000 are infantry ; but in time of war the Sultan coulS raise probably 40,000 infantry and an equal number of horse. The so-called guish, or
