NOTES AND ABSTRACTS 861
almost all skilled labor trades had obtained at least the eleven-hour day, and shipbuilders the eight-hour day, and some success had been reached in the organization of the unskilled and of women.
The special feature of the period 1 861-86 was the rapid growth of the half- mystical, half-practical orders. Knights of Labor reached a membership of 700,000. They were followed by Daughters of the Knights of Labor, who made political demands, such as referendum, weekly wage, and shorter hours. In this period between thirty and forty national unions arose. The socialistic spirit broadened out, but did not fully comprehend itself. In the last twenty years economic development has been great, through the application of machinery. Labor has specialized. No labor party has been successfully organized, but laborers have perfected economic organizations, and have defined and clearly set forth their problem. The real conflict now is between the unions and the non-unionist, just as the capitalist has to fight the underseller and the price-cutter. There are at least two and one-half millions of laborers in 116 national and international (Canada and Mexico) unions, made up of 27,000 local unions ; there are also 33 state organizations. The unit of representation in the annual congress is the local union. The Federation attempts to influence politics and legislation. There is, in spite of the spirit of individualism, large co-operation in the Federation. The leaders have the confidence of the member- ship and yet suspicion of personal or political ends is never entirely absent.
Relations of the unions to employers are varied. The trusts and the labor leaders are not unconditioned opponents of each other. Only menacing forms of monopoly and financial encroachment are openly opposed. The small trusts are much more opposed to labor organizations than the larger. The contention between the two classes is less one of principle than of expediency. Sometimes by joint agreement the laborers and capitalists have been able to combine against the consumer, and this they have not been slow to do.
Arbitration is fast gaining ground, and strikes are becoming rarer, due to the great expense involved in them as well to the better control of the local unions by the Federation. In twenty-two states there are arbitration officers or boards, provided for by the state.
The two questions of importance to the unions are wage and kind of labor. They are not a unit on the question of piece-work ; some favor, some oppose. On the whole, there is a disinclination to the akkord pay, because the employer has a tendency to make the ability of the best worker the basis of wage. Among piece-workers there is opposition to the extra-high wage ; many local unions punish those who labor over the time set by the union ; others have rules limit- ing the quantity of product for a day's work.
The eight-hour day has been gained by coal-miners and most builders' groups. In most other groups the day is still ten hours, and in some cases more. Applicants for membership to the unions must have followed their trade a certain length of time, varying from two to five years. Apprentices are limited to a certain proportion of the membership of the union, ranging from i 15 to 1:15. Others limit yearly recruits to the demand for labor.
The unions recognize that their largest problem is relation to the unor- ganized and assimilation of the immigrant. This first problem is especially acute in times of strike. Thus they try to get all laborers to join some union. so that they will not steal their jobs. The struggle for the closed shop is the peculiar task of the unions at the present time.
Naturally the unions are in favor of restriction of immigration. Leopold von Wiese, "Skizze der Entwickelung der Arbeiterorganirationen in den Vereinigten Staaten von America," Jahrbuch fur Gesetsgebttng, Vcru.'altu** mud Volkswirtschaft im Deutschen Reich.
Hygiene of Lodging-Houses. The hygiene of workingmen's families is a social problem. That governments can, if they wish, enact hygiene laws is shown by England. In spite of inherent conditions favoring it. they have been able to reduce tuberculosis in the last thirty years. No laws of health will reach the
