SAINT 183 ST. ALDWYN eral classes, chiefly in relation to the spe- cial character of the ecclesiastical offices appropriated to their honor. Thus we find enumerated (1) apostles and evan- gelists; (2) martyrs; (3) confessors, a name applied primitively to those who had courageously undergone imprisonment or pains for the faith without gaining the final crown of martyrdom, but in later times understood of all who, not being martyrs, were eminent for sanctity of life; (4) doctors or saints eminent for sacred learning; (5) virgins; (6) ma- trons and widows. Anciently the title of saint was bestowed on an individual by the members of the particular Christian community to which he belonged, or to which his merits were most familiar. It Was not till the 12th century that the Pope reserved to himself the exclusive right to add to the roll of saints, or that a regular form of procedure was estab- lished in the Roman courts for the pur- pose of testing and of solemnly pronounc- ing on the title of persons, who had died with a reputation for sanctity, to the pub- lic ctdtus of the Church. A saint, accord- ing to the received interpretation, is one who has exercised the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity, and the cardinal virtues, prudence, justice, fortitude, in a heroic degree, and has persevered in this exercise till death. Sanctity may exist without miracles; as, according to one of the most commonly alleged instances, there is no record of John the Baptist having wrought mir- acles; and, on the other hand, miracles may be performed by heretics or sinners. Nevertheless, by the existing discipline of the Roman Church, before a decree of canonization can be obtained, the rule re- quires evidence of such miracles as an expected fruit of heroic faith and as a confirmatory sign of sanctity after proof has been given of the heroic virtues. The most notable canonization of modern times was that of Joan of Arc in 1920. This was due to the spiritual inspiration rendered by her memory to the French armies and people during the World War. In Christian art representations of the saints are often marked by the nimbus, aureole, or glory, and many of the saints are pictured as accompanied by emblems, by which they could readily be recog- nized. Apart from symbols which only typified the person indicated (as a shep- herd for Christ, a gourd or a whale for Jonah), the figure of the saint is given with an added emblem. Thus the four evangelists were symbolized by four riv- ers, the four rivers of paradise. The adoption of the four living creatures (Rev. iv. 6) for the same purpose does not appear to have taken place till the 5th century; but soon it became a con- stant practice to represent St. Matthew by or with the man, Mark with the lion, Luke with the ox, John with the eagle. The 12 apostles are depicted as 12 men, 12 sheep, or 12 doves. St. Peter (for ob- vious reasons) is represented with the keys or with a fish; many of the saints with the instruments by which they were martyred — St. Paul with a sword ; St. An- drew with a cross ; St. Simon with a saw ; St. James the Less with a club; St. Matthew with a lance ; St. Catharine with a wheel; St. Lawrence with a gridiron; others with objects connected with their history or in some other way — St. George with a dragon ; St. Matthew with a purse. St. James the Elder is figured as a pil- grim. ST. ALBANS, a city and county-seat of Franklin co., Vt.; on the Central Vermont railroad; 3 miles E. of Lake Champlain, and 59 miles N. N. W. of Montpelier. It is built on elevated grounds surrounded by a fertile agricultural re- gion as well as by beautiful scenery. It contains a number of sulphur springs which add to its attractions as a summer resort. The city contains St. Albans Academy, the Warner Home for Little Wanderers, Warner Hospital, Franklin Library, Villa Barlow Convent, electric lights, National and State banks, and daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. It has large locomotive and railroad car works, cotton mills, bridge works, steel works, and one of the largest creameries in the world. In 1864 St. Albans was raided by Confederates from Canada, and in 1866 was for a time a Fenian head- quarters. It was chartered as a city in 1897. Pop. (1910) 6,381; (1920) 7,588. ST. ALBANS, a municipal borough and cathedral city in Hertfordshire, Eng- land, 24 miles N. W. of London. It stands close to the site of the ancient Verula- mium, and owes its name to St. Albans, the proto-martyr of Britain. St. Albans figures prominently in English history, and two battles were fought here (1455 and 1461) between the rival houses of York and Lancaster. The cathedral is a large and beautiful structure recently re- stored, and St. Michael's contains the re- mains of and a monument to Lord Bacon. Straw plaiting and silk throwing are the chief _ industries. By a readjustment of the dioceses of Rochester and Winchester, the See of St. Albans was created in 1877. St. Albans gives its name to one of the parliamentary divisions of Hertfordshire. Pop. about 18,000. ST. ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS-BEACH, LORD, born at London, Oct. 23, 1837. He was educated at Eton and at Christchurch College, Oxford. In
