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remain of this period. In 22 B.C., however, it was transferred to the senate,^[1] so that Sergius Paulus, who was governor in A.D. 46, is rightly called ἀνθύπατος(proconsul).^[2] Of Paulus no coins are known, but an inscription exists.^[3] Other proconsuls are Julius Cordus and L. Annius Bassus who succeeded him in A.D. 52.^[4] The copper mines, which were still of great importance, were farmed at one time by Herod the Great.^[5] The persecution of Christians on the mainland after the death of Stephen drove converts as far as Cyprus; and soon after converted Cypriote Jews, such as Mnason (an “original convert” ) and Joses the Levite (better known as Barnabas), were preaching in Antioch. The latter revisited Cyprus twice, first with Paul on his “first journey” in A.D. 46, and later with Mark.^[6] In 116–117 the Jews of Cyprus, with those of Egypt and Cyrene, revolted, massacred 240,000 persons, and destroyed a large part of Salamis. Hadrian, afterwards emperor, suppressed them, and expelled all Jews from Cyprus.

For the culture of the Roman period there is abundant evidence from Salamis and Paphos, and from tombs everywhere, for the glass vessels which almost wholly supersede pottery are much sought for their (quite accidental) iridescence; not much else is found that is either characteristic or noteworthy; and little attention has been paid to the sequence of style.

The Christian church of Cyprus was divided into thirteen bishoprics. It was made autonomous in the 5th century, in recognition of the supposed discovery of the original of St Matthew’s Gospel in a “tomb of Barnabas” which is still shown at Salamis. The patriarch has therefore the title μακαριώτατος and the right to sign his name in red ink. A council of Cyprus, summoned by Theophilus of Alexandria in A.D. 401, prohibited the reading of the works of Origen (see Cyprus, Church of).

Of the Byzantine period little remains but the ruins of the castles of St Hilarion, Buffavento and Kantára; and a magnificent series of gold ornaments and silver plate, found near Kyrenia in 1883 and 1897 respectively. Christian tombs usually contain nothing of value.

The Frank conquest is represented by the “Crusaders’ Tower” at Kolossi, and the church of St Nicholas at Nicosia; and, later, by masterpieces of a French Gothic style, such as the church (mosque) of St Sophia, and other churches at Nicosia; the cathedral (mosque) and others at Famagusta (q.v.), and the monastery at Bella Pais; as well as by domestic architecture at Nicosia; and by forts at Kyrenia, Limasol and elsewhere.

The Turks and British have added little, and destroyed much, converting churches into mosques and grain-stores, and quarrying walls and buildings at Famagusta.

History of Excavation.—Practically all the archaeological discoveries above detailed have been made since 1877. A few chance finds of vases, inscriptions and coins; of a hoard of silver bowls at Dali (anc. Idalium)^[7] in 1851; and of a bronze tablet with Phoenician and Cypriote bilingual inscriptions,^[8] also at Dali, and about the same time, had raised questions of great interest as to the art and the language of the ancient inhabitants. T. B. Sandwith, British consul 1865–1869, had laid the foundations of a sound knowledge of Cypriote pottery;^[9] his successor R. H. Lang (1870–1872) had excavated a sanctuary of Aphrodite at Dali;^[10] and at the time of the publication of the 9th ed. of the Ency. Brit.,^[11] General Louis P. di Cesnola (q.v.), American consul, was already exploring ancient sites, and opening tombs, in all parts of the island, though his results were not published till 1877.^[12] But though his vast collection, now in the Metropolitan Museum of New York, remains the largest series of Cypriote antiquities in the world, the accounts which have been given of its origin are so inadequate, and have provoked so much controversy,^[13] that its scientific value is small, and a large part of subsequent excavation has necessarily been directed to solving the problems suggested by its practically isolated specimens. From 1876 to 1878 Major Alexander P. di Cesnola continued his brother’s work, but the large collection which he exhibited in London in 1880 was dispersed soon afterwards.^[14]

On the British occupation of Cyprus in 1878, the Ottoman law of 1874 in regard to antiquities was retained in force. Excavation is permitted under government supervision, and the finds are apportioned in thirds, between the excavator, the landowner (who is usually bought out by the former), and the government. The government thirds lie neglected in a “Cyprus Museum” maintained at Nicosia by voluntary subscription. There is no staff, and no effective supervision of ancient sites or monuments. A catalogue of the collections was published by the Oxford University Press in 1899.^[15]

Since 1878 more than seventy distinct excavations have been made in Cyprus, of which the following are the most important. In 1879 the British government used the acropolis of Citium (Larnaca) to fill up the ancient harbour; and from the destruction a few Phoenician inscriptions and a proto-Ionic capital were saved. In 1882 tombs were opened by G. Hake at Salamis and Curium for the South Kensington Museum, but no scientific record was made. In 1883 the Cyprus Museum was founded by private enterprise, and on its behalf Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, who had already made trial diggings for Sir Charles Newton and the British Museum, excavated sanctuaries at Vóni and Kythréa (Chytri), and opened tombs on some other sites.^[16]

In 1885 Dr F. Dümmler opened tombs at Dali, Alámbra and elsewhere, and laid the foundations of knowledge of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age;^[17] and Richter, on behalf of officials and private individuals, excavated parts of Frángissa (Tamassus), Episkopì and Dali.^[18]

In the same year, 1885, and in 1886, a syndicate opened many tombs at Póli-tis-Khrýsochou (Marium, Arsinoë), and sold the contents by auction in Paris. From Richter’s notes of this excavation, Dr P. Herrmann compiled the first scientific account of Graeco-Phoenician and Hellenistic Cyprus.^[19] In 1886 also M. le vicomte E. de Castillon de St Victor opened rich Graeco-Phoenician tombs at Episkopì, the contents of which are in the Louvre.^[20]

The successes of 1885–1886 led to the foundation of the Cyprus Exploration Fund, on behalf of which (1) in 1888 the sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos (Kouklia) was excavated by Messrs E. Gardner, M. R. James, D. G. Hogarth and R. Elsey Smith;^[21] (2) in 1889–1890 more tombs were opened at Póli by Messrs J. A. R. Munro and H. A. Tubbs;^[22] (3) in 1890–1891 extensive trials were made at Salamis, by the same;^[23] (4) minor sites were examined at Leondári Vounò (1888),^[24] Amargetti (1888),^[25] and Limniti (1889);^[26] (5) in 1888 Hogarth made a surface-survey of the Karpass promontory;^[27] and finally, (6) in 1894 the balance was expended by J. L. Myres in a series of trials, to settle special

1. 27
2. Acts xiii. 7.
3. D. G. Hogarth, Devia Cypria, pp. 114 ff. and app.
4. Corp. Inscr. Lat. 2631-2632.
5. Jos. Ant. 16. 4, 5; 19. 26, 28.
6. Acts iv. 36, xi. 19, 20, xiii. 4-13, xv. 39, xxi. 16.
7. De Longpérier, Athenæum français (1853), pp. 413 ff.; Musée Napoléon, pls. x. xi.
8. De Luynes, Numismatique et inscriptions chypriotes (1852).
9. Archaeologia, xlv. (1877), pp. 127-142.
10. Trans. Roy. Soc. Literature, 2nd ser. xi. (1878), pp. 30 ff.
11. Article “Cyprus” ad. fin.
12. Cyprus: its Cities, Tombs and Temples (London, 1877).
13. See Cobham, An Attempt at a Bibliography of Cyprus (4th ed., Nicosia, 1900), Appendix, “Cesnola Controversy,” p. 54.
14. The Lawrence-Cesnola Collection (London, 1881); Salaminia, id. 1882.
15. Myres and Ohnefalsch-Richter, A Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum, with a Chronicle of Excavations since the British Occupation, and Introductory Notes on Cypriote Archaeology (Oxford, 1899).
16. Mitt. d. arch. Inst. ii. (Athens, 1881).
17. Mitt. d. arch. Inst. vi. (Athens, 1886); Bemerkungen z. ält Kunsthandwerk, &c., ii. “Der kypr. geometrische Stil” (Halle, 1888).
18. Summarized in Cyprus, the Bible and Homer (London and Berlin, 1893).
19. Das Gräberfeld von Marion (Berlin, 1888).
20. Archives des missions scientifiques, xvii. (Paris, 1891).
21. Journal of Hellenic Studies, ix. (London, 1888).
22. Id. xi. (1890); xii. (1891).
23. Id. xii. (1891).
24. Id. ix. (1888).
25. Id. ix. (1888).
26. Id. xi. (1890).
27. Devia Cypria (Oxford, 1889).