used for dusting brushes, is obtained from various species of the Gramineae; the “Mexican Whisk” from Epicampeas macroura; and “Italian Whisk” from Andropogon. The coir fibre mentioned above in connexion with coarse textiles is also extensively used in brush-making. Aloe and Agave fibres in their softer forms are also used for plasterers’s brushes. Many of the whitewashes and cleansing solutions used in house decoration are alkaline in character, and for such uses advantage is taken of the specially resistant character of the cellulose group of materials.
Stuffing and Upholstery.—Another important use for fibrous materials is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and cushions in upholstery. In the large range of effects required, a corresponding number and variety of products find employment. One of the most important is the floss or seed-hair of the Eriodendron anfractuosum, known as Kapok, the use of which in Europe was created by the Dutch merchants who drew their supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky and elastic, and maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used in the mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted and compressed in use, and to restore them to their original state the fibre requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing or carding process. This defect limits the use of other “flosses” or seed hairs in competition with Kapok. Horse hair is extensively used in this industry, as are also wool flocks and other short animal hairs and wastes.
Hats and Matting.—For these manufactures a large range of the fibrous products above described are employed, chiefly in their natural or raw state.
Bibliography.—The list of works appended comprises only a small fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to them, to cover the subject-matter. F. H. Bowman, The Structure of the Wood Fibre (1885), The Structure of Cotton Fibre (1882); Cross, Bevan and King, Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances (London, 1887); C. F. Cross, Report on Miscellaneous Fibres, Colonial Indian Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan, Cellulose, Researches on Cellulose, i. and ii. (London, 1895–1905); C. R. Dodge, A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World (Report No. 9, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897); von Höhmel, Die Mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe (Leipzig, 1905); J. J. Hummel, The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics (London, 1885); J. M. Matthews, The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microscopical and Chemical Properties (New York, 1904); H. Müller, Die Pflanzenfaser (Braunschweig, 1877); H. Schlichter, “The Examination of Textile Fibres and Fabrics” (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1890, 241); M. Vetillart, Études sur les fibres végétales textiles (Paris, 1876); Sir T. H. Wardle, Silk and Wild Silks, original memoirs in connexion with Col. Ind. Ex., 1886, Jubilee Ex. Manchester, 1887; Sir G. Watt, Dictionary of Economic Products of India (London, 1891); Wiesner, Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs (Leipzig, 1873); O. N. Witt, Chemische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern (Braunschweig, 1888); Kew Bulletin; The Journal of the Imperial Institute; The Journal of the Society of Arts; W. I. Hannam, The Textile Fibres of Commerce (London, 1902); J. Jackson, Commercial Botany; J. Zipser, Die Textilen Rohmaterialien (Wien, 1895); F. Zetzsche, Die wichtigsten Faserstoffe der europäischen Industrie (Leipzig, 1895). (C. F. C.)
FIBRIN, or Fibrine, a protein formed by the action of the
so-called fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-plasma
of all vertebrates. This change takes place when blood
leaves the arteries, and the fibrin thus formed occasions the
clotting which ensues (see Blood). To obtain pure coagulated
fibrin it is best to heat blood-plasma (preferably that of the horse)
to 56° C. The usual method of beating a blood-clot with twigs
and removing the filamentous fibrin which attaches itself to
them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and
much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin
is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance;
when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any
other coagulated albumin.
FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally Hartmann)
VON (1797–1879), German philosopher, son of J. G. Fichte,
was born at Jena on the 18th of July 1797. Having held educational
posts at Saarbrücken and Düsseldorf, in 1836 he became
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1840 full
professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tübingen, retired in
1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1879. The
most important of his comprehensive writings are: System der
Ethik (1850–1853), Anthropologie (1856, 3rd ed. 1876), Psychologie
(1864–1873), Die theistische Weltansicht (1873). In 1837 he had
founded the Zeitschrift für Philosophie as an organ of his views,
more especially on the subject of the philosophy of religion,
where he was in alliance with C. H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse
thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and
that its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be
incurably defective, and spoke of it as a “masterpiece of
erroneous consistency or consistent error.” Fichte’s general
views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is
strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of
problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own,
and his conciliatory tone. His philosophy is an attempt to
reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbart) by means
of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism,
its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of
the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose
nature it is that he should realize himself in finite persons.
These persons are objects of God’s love, and he arranges the
world for their good. The direct connecting link between God
and man is the “genius,” a higher spiritual individuality existing
in man by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte,
in short, advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might
easily be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In
his conception of finite personality he recurs to something like
the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral experience
is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the tests
by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is
the adequateness with which they interpret moral experience.
The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him
praise Krause (panentheism) and Schleiermacher, and speak
respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte’s
almost excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work,
Der neuere Spiritualismus (1878), he supports his position by
arguments of a somewhat occult or theosophical cast, not unlike
those adopted by F. W. H. Myers. He also edited the complete
works and literary correspondence of his father, including his
life.
See R. Eucken, “Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.,” in Zeitschrift für Philosophie, ex. (1897); C. C. Scherer, Die Gotteslehre von I. H. F. (1902); article by Karl Hartmann in Allegemeine deutsche Biographie xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J. D. Morell under the title of Contributions to Mental Philosophy (1860).
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762–1814), German philosopher,
was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th
of May 1762. His father, a ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of
a Swedish soldier who (in the service of Gustavus Adolphus)
was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. The family
was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of character.
With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain impetuosity
and impatience probably derived from his mother,
a woman of a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.
At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour and moral independence. A fortunate accident which brought him under the notice of a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von Miltitz, was the means of procuring him a more excellent education than his father’s circumstances would have allowed. He was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at Niederau. After a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the university of Jena as a student of theology. He supported himself mainly by private teaching, and during the years 1784–1787 acted as tutor in various families of Saxony. In 1787, after an unsuccessful application to the consistory for pecuniary assistance, he seems to have been driven to miscellaneous literary work. A tutorship at Zürich was, however, obtained in the spring of 1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of the happiest years of his life. He made several valuable acquaintances,
